Genotypic characterization of novel S-DEL variants of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus identified in South Korea.

The highly pathogenic genotype 2b (HP-G2b) of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), which caused a pandemic in 2013-2014, evolved in South Korea and became endemic, affecting the domestic pig industry. This study describes the genotypic traits of novel HP-G2b PEDV strains identified on affected farms experiencing low disease severity with < 10% neonatal mortality. Nucleotide sequencing revealed common deletion patterns, termed S-DEL2, resulting in a two-amino-acid deletion at positions 60 and 61, 61 and 62, or 63 and 64 in the N-terminal domain of the spike (S) protein of all isolates. The S barcode profiles of S-DEL2 variants differed from each other and shared 96.0-99.4% and 98.5-99.6% nt sequence identity with other South Korean HP-G2b PEDV strains in the S gene and in the complete genome sequence, respectively. Genetic and phylogenetic analysis showed that the S-DEL2 strains belonged to diverse domestic clades: CK, CK.1, CK.2, or NC. The emergence of novel S-DEL2 strains suggests that continuous evolution of PEDV occurs under endemic circumstances, resulting in genetic diversity and distinct clinical presentations. This study advances our knowledge regarding the genetic and pathogenic heterogeneity of PEDV and emphasizes the importance of active monitoring and surveillance to identify novel variants and determine their genotypic and phenotypic characteristics.

A multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, parallel comparison, phase 3 trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pioglitazone add-on therapy in type 2 diabetic patients treated with metformin and dapagliflozin.

AIM: To investigate the efficacy and safety of pioglitazone compared to placebo when added to metformin plus dapagliflozin, a sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). MATERIALS AND METHODS: In a multicentre study, with a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design, 249 Korean patients with T2DM suboptimally managed on metformin and dapagliflozin were assigned to receive either pioglitazone (15 mg daily) or placebo for 24 weeks, followed by a 24-week pioglitazone extension. Primary outcomes included changes in glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), with secondary outcomes assessing insulin resistance, adiponectin levels, lipid profiles, liver enzymes, body weight and waist circumference. RESULTS: Pioglitazone administration resulted in a significant reduction in HbA1c levels (from 7.80% ± 0.72% to 7.27% ± 0.82%) compared with placebo (from 7.79% ± 0.76% to 7.69% ± 0.86%, corrected mean difference: -0.42% ± 0.08%; p < 0.01) at 24 weeks. Additional benefits from pioglitazone treatment included enhanced insulin sensitivity, increased adiponectin levels, raised high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and reduced liver enzyme levels, resulting in improvement in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease liver fat score. Despite no serious adverse events in either group, pioglitazone therapy was modestly but significantly associated with weight gain and increased waist circumference. CONCLUSIONS: Adjunctive pioglitazone treatment in T2DM inadequately controlled with metformin and dapagliflozin demonstrates considerable glycaemic improvement, metabolic benefits, and a low risk of hypoglycaemia. These advantages must be weighed against the potential for weight gain and increased waist circumference.

Association of Blood Pressure With Cardio-Renal Events and Mortality in Type 2 DM: A National Health Insurance Database.

CONTEXT: The relationship of blood pressure (BP) with cardio-renal events and all-cause mortality in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is still controversial. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the optimal BP target in Korean individuals with T2DM. METHODS: Using the Korean National Health Insurance System database, data of individuals with T2DM who underwent regular health checks from January 1, 2007, to December 31, 2007, were extracted (N = 1 800 073). Among them, a total of 326 593 individuals were included in the final study. The study population was divided into 7 groups according to their observed systolic blood pressure (SBP) (<110, 110-119, 120-129, 130-139, 140-149, 150-159, 160-169, and ≥170 mmHg) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) (<65, 65-69, 70-74, 75-79, 80-84, 85-89, and ≥90 mmHg). Hazard ratios (HRs) of cardio-renal events and all-cause mortality according to BP categories were analyzed. RESULTS: Compared with SBP of 120-129 mmHg and DBP of 75-79 mmHg, SBP of ≥130 mmHg and DBP of ≥ 80 mmHg were associated with an increase in HR of major cardiovascular adverse events (MACEs). SBP of 120-129 mmHg and DBP 75-79 mmHg were associated with the lowest HR of all-cause mortality. Both lower BP (SBP/DBP <120/70 mm) and higher BP (SBP/DBP ≥130/80 mmHg) were associated with an increased HR of all-cause mortality. Contrary to MACE, the lower the SBP, the lower the HR of renal events. CONCLUSION: In patients with T2DM, the optimal cutoff value of BP associated with a lower incidence of MACE and mortality may be 120-129 mmHg for SBP and 75-79 mmHg for DBP. However, lower SBP may be helpful for T2DM patients with a high risk of renal disease.

Efficacy and safety of enavogliflozin versus dapagliflozin added to metformin plus gemigliptin treatment in patients with type 2 diabetes: A double-blind, randomized, comparator-active study: ENHANCE-D study.

AIMS: This study evaluated the efficacy and safety of enavogliflozin, a novel sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor, versus dapagliflozin in Korean patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) inadequately controlled with metformin and gemigliptin. METHODS: In this multicenter, double-blind, randomized study, patients with inadequate response to metformin (≥ 1000 mg/day) plus gemigliptin (50 mg/day) were randomized to receive enavogliflozin 0.3 mg/day (n = 134) or dapagliflozin 10 mg/day (n = 136) in addition to the metformin plus gemigliptin therapy. The primary endpoint was change in HbA1c from baseline to week 24. RESULTS: Both treatments significantly reduced HbA1c at week 24 (-0.92% in enavogliflozin group, -0.86% in dapagliflozin group). The enavogliflozin and dapagliflozin groups did not differ in terms of changes in HbA1c (between-group difference: -0.06%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.19, 0.06) and fasting plasma glucose (between-group difference: -3.49 mg/dl [-8.08;1.10]). An increase in urine glucose-creatinine ratio was significantly greater in the enavogliflozin group than in the dapagliflozin group (60.2 g/g versus 43.5 g/g, P < 0.0001). The incidence of treatment-emergent adverse events was similar between the groups (21.64% versus 23.53%). CONCLUSIONS: Enavogliflozin, added to metformin plus gemigliptin, was well tolerated and as effective as dapagliflozin in the treatment of patients with T2DM.

Alcohol-induced increase in BMP levels promotes fatty liver disease in male prediabetic stage Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty rats.

Alcohol consumption exacerbates liver abnormalities in animal models, but whether it increases the severity of liver disease in early diabetic or prediabetic rats is unclear. To investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying alcohol-induced liver steatosis or hepatitis, we used a prediabetic animal model. Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) and Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (LETO) rats were pair-fed with an ethanol-containing liquid diet for 6 weeks. Compared with controls, OLETF and LETO rats displayed more pronounced liver steatosis and higher plasma levels of serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) and serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase (SPGT), indicating liver injury. Ethanol-fed LETO (Pd-L-E) rats showed mild liver steatosis and no inflammation compared with ethanol-fed OLETF (Pd-O-E) rats. Although precursor and active SREBP-1 levels in the liver of ethanol-fed OLETF rats significantly increased compared with control diet-fed OLETF rats (Pd-O-C), those of Pd-L-E rats did not. Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and TGF-ß1 balance in Pd-O-E rats was significantly altered because BMP signaling was upregulated by inducing BMP2, BMP4, BMP7, BMP9, Smad1, and Smad4, whereas TGF-ß1, Smad3, and Erk were downregulated. Activation of TGF-ß/Smad signaling inhibited BMP2 and BMP9 expression and increased epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) marker levels (Hepcidin, Snail, and Twist) in the liver of LETO rats. Livers of ethanol-fed OLETF rats showed increased levels of vimentin, FSP-1, α-SMA, MMP1, MMP13, and collagen III compared with rats of other groups, whereas EMT marker levels did not change. Thus, BMP exerted anti- and/or pro-fibrotic effects in ethanol-fed rats. Therefore, BMP and TGF-ß, two key members of the TGF-ß superfamily, play important but diverse roles in liver steatosis in young LETO and OLETF rats.

Therapeutic Effects of Switching to Anagliptin from Other DPP-4 Inhibitors in T2DM Patients with Inadequate Glycemic Control: A Non-interventional, Single-Arm, Open-Label, Multicenter Observational Study.

INTRODUCTION: The effects of switching DPP-4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients are being widely studied. However, information of which factors affect the therapeutic response is limited. We evaluated the difference in HbA1c lowering effect by comorbidity and other variables after switching to anagliptin in patients with T2DM inadequately controlled by other DPP-4 inhibitors. METHODS: In a multicenter, open-label, single-arm, prospective observational study, patients with T2DM, HbA1c ≥ 7.0% who have taken DPP-4 inhibitors other than anagliptin, either alone or in combination (DPP-4 inhibitors + metformin/sulfonylurea (SU)/thiazolidinedione (TZD)/insulin), for at least 8 weeks were enrolled. After the switch to anagliptin, HbA1c and available clinical characteristics were determined. RESULTS: The change in HbA1c levels from baseline to week 12 and 24 was - 0.40% and - 0.42% in all patients. However, comparing the subgroups without and with comorbidities, the change in HbA1c levels at weeks 12 and 24 was - 0.68% and - 0.89% vs. - 0.27% and 0.22%, respectively. In addition, the proportion of patients achieving HbA1c < 7% from baseline to week 12 and 24 was increased to 70% and 70% vs. 20% and 24%, respectively. Duration of T2DM and different subtype classes of DPP-4 inhibitor did not significantly contribute to the change in HbA1c. CONCLUSION: In patients with T2DM poorly controlled by other DPP-4 inhibitors, HbA1c levels were significantly decreased after switching to anagliptin. Given that the change in HbA1c was greater in patients without comorbidities than in patients with comorbidities, switching to anagliptin before adding other oral hypoglycemic agents (OHAs) may be an option in patients without comorbidities.

A Real-World Study of Long-Term Safety and Efficacy of Lobeglitazone in Korean Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

BACKGROUND: Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) have been associated with various safety concerns including weight gain, bladder cancer, and congestive heart failure (CHF). This study evaluated the efficacy and safety of lobeglitazone, a novel TZD in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in real practice. METHODS: In this non-interventional, multi-center, retrospective, and observational study conducted at 15 tertiary or secondary referral hospitals in Korea, a total of 2,228 patients with T2DM who received lobeglitazone 0.5 mg for more than 1 year were enrolled. RESULTS: Overall adverse events (AEs) occurred in 381 patients (17.10%) including edema in 1.97% (n=44). Cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases were identified in 0.81% (n=18) and 0.81% (n=18), respectively. One case of CHF was reported as an AE. Edema occurred in 1.97% (n=44) of patients. Hypoglycemia occurred in 2.47% (n=55) of patients. Fracture occurred in 1.17% (n=26) of all patients. Lobeglitazone significantly decreased HbA1c level, resulting in a mean treatment difference of -1.05%± 1.35% (P<0.001), and decreased total cholesterol, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. However, it increased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, regardless of statin administration. The patients who received lobeglitazone 0.5 mg showed an apparent reduction in glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) from baseline during the first 6 months of treatment. The HbA1c levels remained stable between months 6 and 42. CONCLUSION: Lobeglitazone has long-term safety profile, good glycemic-lowering effect and long-term durability of glycemic control in real-world clinical settings.

Current Status of Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Target Achievement in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Korea Compared with Recent Guidelines.

BACKGROUND: We evaluated the achievement of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) targets in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) according to up-to-date Korean Diabetes Association (KDA), European Society of Cardiology (ESC)/European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS), and American Diabetes Association (ADA) guidelines. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study collected electronic medical record data from patients with T2DM (≥20 years) managed by endocrinologists from 15 hospitals in Korea (January to December 2019). Patients were categorized according to guidelines to assess LDL-C target achievement. KDA (2019): Very High-I (atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease [ASCVD]) <70 mg/dL; Very High-II (target organ damage [TOD], or cardiovascular risk factors [CVRFs]) <70 mg/dL; high (others) <100 mg/dL. ESC/EAS (2019): Very High-I (ASCVD): <55 mg/dL; Very High-II (TOD or ≥3-CVRF) <55 mg/dL; high (diabetes ≥10 years without TOD plus any CVRF) <70 mg/dL; moderate (diabetes <10 years without CVRF) <100 mg/dL. ADA (2019): Very High-I (ASCVD); Very High-II (age ≥40+ TOD, or any CVRF), for high intensity statin or statin combined with ezetimibe. RESULTS: Among 2,000 T2DM patients (mean age 62.6 years; male 55.9%; mean glycosylated hemoglobin 7.2%) ASCVD prevalence was 24.7%. Of 1,455 (72.8%) patients treated with statins, 73.9% received monotherapy. According to KDA guidelines, LDL-C target achievement rates were 55.2% in Very High-I and 34.9% in Very High-II patients. With ESC/EAS guidelines, target attainment rates were 26.6% in Very High-I, 15.7% in Very High-II, and 25.9% in high risk patients. Based on ADA guidelines, most patients (78.9%) were very-high risk; however, only 15.5% received high-intensity statin or combination therapy. CONCLUSION: According to current dyslipidemia management guidelines, LDL-C goal achievement remains suboptimal in Korean patients with T2DM.

Efficacy and Safety of Pitavastatin in a Real-World Setting: Observational Study Evaluating SaFety in Patient Treated with Pitavastatin in Korea (PROOF Study).

BACKGROUND: While randomized controlled trials provide useful information about drug safety and efficacy, they do not always reflect the observed results in the real world. The prospective, observational, non-comparative trial in South Korea was designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pitavastatin in clinical practice in 28,343 patients. METHODS: This study was conducted in 893 facilities in Korea from April 2, 2012 to April 1, 2017. This study was designed to administer 1, 2, or 4 mg pitavastatin to patients with hyperlipidemia at the age of 20 or older for at least 8 weeks. RESULTS: For 126 days of mean duration of administration of pitavastatin, the % change of low density lipoprotein cholesterol indicated a dose dependent reduction: -23.4%, -29.1%, and -35.2% in the 1, 2, and 4 mg groups, respectively in patients who have not been treated with lipid lowering medications prior to study. Only 1.74% (492/28,343) of pitavastatin-treated patients experienced adverse events, of which 0.43% (123/28,343) were adverse drug reactions. Less than 1% of patients experienced the grade 2 or more toxicity (Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events v4.03) in alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, serum creatinine, and serum creatine phosphokinase. Although there were no rhabdomyolysis in 28,343 patients, 0.04% of patients had been reported pitavastatin-related musculoskeletal disorders. CONCLUSION: Overall, this observational study showed that pitavastatin was well tolerated and effectively modified the lipid profile, reducing cardiovascular and cerebrovascular risk in Korean patients with hypercholesterolemia in the real world.

Independent Impact of Diabetes on the Severity of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in 5,307 Patients in South Korea: A Nationwide Cohort Study.

Background: Inconsistent results have been observed regarding the independent effect of diabetes on the severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We conducted a nationwide population-based cohort study to evaluate the relationship between diabetes and COVID-19 severity in South Korea. METHODS: Patients with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 aged ≥30 years were enrolled and medical claims data were obtained from the Korean Health Insurance Review and Assessment Service. Hospitalization, oxygen treatment, ventilator application, and mortality were assessed as severity outcomes. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed after adjusting for age, sex, and comorbidities. RESULTS: Of 5,307 COVID-19 patients, the mean age was 56.0±14.4 years, 2,043 (38.5%) were male, and 770 (14.5%) had diabetes. The number of patients who were hospitalized, who received oxygen, who required ventilator support, and who died was 4,986 (94.0%), 884 (16.7%), 121 (2.3%), and 211 (4.0%), respectively. The proportion of patients with diabetes in the abovementioned outcome groups was 14.7%, 28.1%, 41.3%, 44.6%, showing an increasing trend according to outcome severity. In multivariate analyses, diabetes was associated with worse outcomes, with an adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of 1.349 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.099 to 1.656; P=0.004) for oxygen treatment, an aOR of 1.930 (95% CI, 1.276 to 2.915; P<0.001) for ventilator use, and an aOR of 2.659 (95% CI, 1.896 to 3.729; P<0.001) for mortality. CONCLUSION: Diabetes was associated with worse clinical outcomes in Korean patients with COVID-19, independent of other comorbidities. Therefore, patients with diabetes and COVID-19 should be treated with caution.

Comprehensive Review of Current and Upcoming Anti-Obesity Drugs.

Obesity is among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide and its prevalence continues to increase globally. Because obesity is a chronic, complex, and heterogeneous disease influenced by genetic, developmental, biological, and environmental factors, it is necessary to approach obesity with an integrated and comprehensive treatment strategy. As it is difficult to achieve and sustain successful long-term weight loss in most patients with obesity through lifestyle modifications (e.g., diet, exercise, and behavioral therapy), pharmacological approaches to the treatment of obesity should be considered as an adjunct therapy. Currently, four drugs (orlistat, naltrexone extended-release [ER]/bupropion ER, phentermine/topiramate controlled-release, and liraglutide) can be used long-term (>12 weeks) to promote weight loss by suppressing appetite or decreasing fat absorption. Pharmacotherapy for obesity should be conducted according to a proper assessment of the clinical evidence and customized to individual patients considering the characteristics of each drug and comorbidities associated with obesity. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of action, efficacy, and safety of these available long-term anti-obesity drugs and introduce other potential agents under investigation. Furthermore, we discuss the need for research on personalized obesity medicine.

Efficacy and safety of gemigliptin as add-on therapy to insulin, with or without metformin, in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (ZEUS II study).

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of gemigliptin added to a stable dose of insulin alone or of insulin in combination with metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. After a two-week run-in period, patients were randomized 2:1 to receive gemigliptin 50 mg or placebo once daily as add-on to background therapy with insulin or insulin plus metformin for 24 weeks. The primary endpoint was change in haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) from baseline at Week 24. Baseline characteristics were similar between the gemigliptin (n = 188) and placebo (n = 95) groups in terms of HbA1c (8.1%). At Week 24, the gemigliptin group showed a statistically significant reduction in mean HbA1c from baseline as compared with placebo (between-group mean difference, -0.7% [95% CI, -0.9% to -0.4%]; P-value < 0.0001). The incidence of overall adverse events and the number of hypoglycaemic adverse events were similar between the study groups. Gemigliptin added to insulin alone or to insulin in combination with metformin resulted in superior glycaemic control compared to that in the placebo group and was well tolerated for 24 weeks in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, without causing weight gain or increasing the incidence of hypoglycaemia.

Long-term insulin treatment leads to a change in myosin heavy chain fiber distribution in OLETF rat skeletal muscle.

The objective of this study was to investigate molecular and physiological changes in response to long-term insulin glargine treatment in the skeletal muscle of OLETF rats. Male Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) and Long-Evans Tokushima Otsuka (LETO) rats aged 24 weeks were randomly allocated to either treatment with insulin for 24 weeks or no treatment, resulting in three groups. Insulin glargine treatment in OLETF rats (OLETF-G) for 24 weeks resulted in changes in blood glucose levels in intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests compared with age-matched, untreated OLETF rats (OLETF-C), and the area under the curve was significantly decreased for OLETF-G rats compared with OLETF-C rats (P < 0.05). The protein levels of MHC isoforms were altered in gastrocnemius muscle of OLETF rats, and the proportions of myosin heavy chain type I and II fibers were lower and higher, respectively, in OLETF-G compared with OLETF-C rats. Activation of myokines (IL-6, IL-15, FNDC5, and myostatin) in gastrocnemius muscle was significantly inhibited in OLETF-G compared with OLETF-C rats ( P < 0.05). MyoD and myogenin levels were decreased, while IGF-I and GLUT4 levels were increased, in the skeletal muscle of OLETF-G rats ( P < 0.05). Insulin glargine treatment significantly increased the phosphorylation levels of AMPK, SIRT1, and PGC-1α. Together, our results suggested that changes in the distribution of fiber types by insulin glargine could result in downregulation of myokines and muscle regulatory proteins. The effects were likely associated with activation of the AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling pathway. Changes in these proteins may at least partly explain the effect of insulin in skeletal muscle of diabetes mellitus.

Teneligliptin versus sitagliptin in Korean patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with metformin and glimepiride: A randomized, double-blind, non-inferiority trial.

AIM: To assess the efficacy and safety of add-on therapy with the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor teneligliptin compared with sitagliptin in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) inadequately controlled with metformin and glimepiride. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a phase 3, randomized, double-blind, non-inferiority study of adult Korean subjects with T2DM (n = 201), with HbA1c ranging from 7.0% to 11.0%, on stable doses of metformin plus glimepiride. Subjects were randomized in a 1:1 fashion to receive either oral teneligliptin 20 mg or sitagliptin 100 mg for 24 weeks. The primary endpoint was change from baseline in HbA1c. RESULTS: At baseline, mean age was 60.56 ± 9.41 years, body mass index was 25.23 ± 2.85 kg/m2 and HbA1c was 8.11% ± 0.79%. At 24 weeks, both groups achieved significant reductions from baseline in HbA1c (teneligliptin, -1.03% ± 0.10% [P < 0.0001]; sitagliptin, -1.02% ± 0.10% [P < 0.0001]). The inter-group difference was -0.01% (95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.28, 0.26; P = 0.9497); the upper limit of the 95% CI was within the preset limit for non-inferiority (0.4%). There were no significant differences between groups in the proportion of patients achieving HbA1c targets, or changes from baseline in fasting plasma glucose, body weight or lipid levels at 24 weeks. Rates of adverse events (teneligliptin, n = 63 [61.76%]; sitagliptin, n = 61 [62.24%]; P = 0.9442) and hypoglycaemia (teneligliptin, n = 32 [31.37%]; sitagliptin, n = 28 [28.57%]; P = 0.6656) were similar. CONCLUSION: Teneligliptin was non-inferior to sitagliptin in the context of triple therapy for T2DM and is an important option in this setting.

Alpha-lipoic acid preserves skeletal muscle mass in type 2 diabetic OLETF rats.

BACKGROUND: Increased oxidative stress and impaired antioxidant defense are important mechanisms in the pathogenesis of diabetic myopathy. Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) has been indicated as a weight-loss treatment in rodents and humans, but studies are limited. In the present study, we aimed to determine the influence of ALA, a potent biological antioxidant, on metabolic and growth processes in diabetic rat skeletal muscle. METHODS: Male 25-week-old type 2 diabetic rats (OLETF) were randomly divided into two groups, a control group (OLETF-C) and an ALA-treated group (OLETF-ALA) supplemented with 100 mg/kg ALA for 8 weeks. Age-matched, healthy, nondiabetic LETO (LETO-C) rats were used as controls. RESULTS: At 32 weeks of age, body weight was decreased by 6.8%, and the areas under the curve of IP-GTT, fasting glucose, and insulin were less in OLETF-ALA rats compared with OLETF-C rats. ALA significantly preserved muscle mass and enhanced muscle fiber cross-sectional area and fiber frequency percentage in the skeletal muscle of OLETF rats. Although the activation of myoD, myogenin, and myostatin in gastrocnemius muscle was significantly inhibited in OLETF-ALA rats relative to OLETF-C rats, there were no differences in the expression levels of muscle atrogin-1 and MuRF1 between the two groups. ALA treatment significantly increased the levels of phosphorylated 5'-AMPK, SIRT1, and PGC-1α, as well as the levels of phosphorylated AKT, mTOR, and p70S6 kinase in OLETF-ALA rats compared with OLETF-C rats. In contrast, the levels of phosphorylated p38 MAPK, IRS-1, and FOXO1 were decreased in OLETF-ALA rats compared with OLETF-C rats. CONCLUSIONS: ALA treatment preserved mass in the gastrocnemius muscles of OLETF rats. ALA significantly upregulated the AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α and AKT/mTOR/p70S6K signaling pathways in OLETF rat skeletal muscle. Therefore, ALA may be a potential therapeutic intervention for skeletal muscle loss in animal models of insulin resistance.

Time- and frequency-domain measures of heart rate variability predict cardiovascular outcome in patients with type 2 diabetes.

AIMS: To evaluate the association between impaired heart rate variability (HRV) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM). METHODS: A total of 655 patients with T2DM who underwent cardiovascular autonomic function testing were consecutively recruited and followed up prospectively. Time- and frequency-domain HRV were assessed for 5 min by beat-to-beat heart rate recording. We estimated the development of CVD events during a follow-up period. RESULTS: During a median follow-up of 7.8 years, 9.6% (n = 49) of patients developed CVD (10.6 per 1000 patient-years). The mean age and diabetes duration were 54.9 ±â€¯8.6 years and 9.4 ±â€¯7.3 years, respectively. Patients who had cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) had decreased HRV compared with those with normal autonomic function. Multivariable cox hazard regression analysis revealed the lowest 10th percentile of the SD of the normal-to-normal interval (HR 2.62; 95% CI 1.30-5.31), total power (HR 2.81; 95% CI 1.37-5.79), low-frequency power (HR 2.68; 95% CI 1.28-5.59), and high-frequency power (HR 2.24; 95% CI 1.09-4.59) were significant predictors for developing CVD in patients with T2DM. CONCLUSIONS: Time- and frequency-domain measures of HRV independently predicted cardiovascular outcome in patients with T2DM.

Clinical Characteristics of People with Newly Diagnosed Type 2 Diabetes between 2015 and 2016: Difference by Age and Body Mass Index.

BACKGROUND: We evaluated the clinical characteristics of insulin resistance and ß-cell dysfunction in newly diagnosed, drug-naive people with type 2 diabetes by analyzing nationwide cross-sectional data. METHODS: We collected the clinical data of 912 participants with newly diagnosed diabetes from 83 primary care clinics and hospitals nationwide from 2015 to 2016. The presence of insulin resistance and ß-cell dysfunction was defined as a homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) value ≥2.5 and fasting C-peptide levels <1.70 ng/mL, respectively. RESULTS: A total of 75.1% and 22.6% of participants had insulin resistance and ß-cell dysfunction, respectively. The proportion of participants with insulin resistance but no ß-cell dysfunction increased, and the proportion of participants with ß-cell dysfunction but no insulin resistance decreased as body mass index (BMI) increased. People diagnosed with diabetes before 40 years of age had significantly higher HOMA-IR and BMI than those diagnosed over 65 years of age (HOMA-IR, 5.0 vs. 3.0; BMI, 28.7 kg/m² vs. 25.1 kg/m²). However, the ß-cell function indices were lower in people diagnosed before 40 years of age than in those diagnosed after 65 years of age (homeostatic model assessment of ß-cell function, 39.3 vs. 64.9; insulinogenic index, 10.3 vs. 18.7; disposition index, 0.15 vs. 0.25). CONCLUSION: We observed that the main pathogenic mechanism of type 2 diabetes is insulin resistance in participants with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes. In addition, young adults with diabetes are more likely to have higher insulin resistance with obesity and have higher insulin secretory defect with severe hyperglycemia in the early period of diabetes than older populations.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 Inhibitors and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A Tale of Three Studies.

Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) inhibitors have been touted as promising antihyperglycemic agents due to their beneficial effects on glycemia without inducing hypoglycemia or body weight gain and their good tolerability. Beyond their glucose-lowering effects, numerous clinical trials and experimental studies have suggested that DPP4 inhibitors may exert cardioprotective effects through their pleiotropic actions via glucagon-like peptide 1-dependent mechanisms or involving other substrates. Since 2008, regulatory agencies have required an assessment of cardiovascular disease (CVD) safety for the approval of all new anti-hyperglycemic agents, including incretin-based therapies. Three large prospective DPP4 inhibitor trials with cardiovascular (CV) outcomes have recently been published. According to the Saxagliptin Assessment of Vascular Outcomes Recorded in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus (SAVOR-TIMI 53) and EXamination of cArdiovascular outcoMes with alogliptIN versus standard of carE in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and acute coronary syndrome (EXAMINE) trials, DPP4 inhibitors, including saxagliptin and alogliptin, did not appear to increase the risk of CV events in patients with type 2 diabetes and established CVD or high risk factors. Unexpectedly, saxagliptin significantly increased the risk of hospitalization for heart failure by 27%, a finding that has not been explained and that requires further exploration. More recently, the Trial Evaluating Cardiovascular Outcomes with Sitagliptin (TECOS) trial demonstrated the CV safety of sitagliptin, including assessments of the primary composite CV endpoint and hospitalization for heart failure in patients with type 2 diabetes and established CVD. The CV outcomes of an ongoing linagliptin trial are expected to provide new evidence about the CV effects of a DPP4-inhibitor in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Changing Clinical Characteristics according to Insulin Resistance and Insulin Secretion in Newly Diagnosed Type 2 Diabetic Patients in Korea.

BACKGROUND: The role of increased insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes has been emphasized in Asian populations. Thus, we evaluated the proportion of insulin resistance and the insulin secretory capacity in patients with early phase type 2 diabetes in Korea. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional analysis of 1,314 drug-naive patients with newly diagnosed diabetes from primary care clinics nationwide. The homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was used as an index to measure insulin resistance, which was defined as a HOMA-IR ≥2.5. Insulin secretory defects were classified based on fasting plasma C-peptide levels: severe (<1.1 ng/mL), moderate (1.1 to 1.7 ng/mL) and mild to non-insulin secretory defect (≥1.7 ng/mL). RESULTS: The mean body mass index (BMI) was 25.2 kg/m(2); 77% of patients had BMIs >23.0 kg/m(2). Up to 50% of patients had central obesity based on their waist circumference (≥90 cm in men and 85 cm in women), and 70.6% had metabolic syndrome. Overall, 59.5% of subjects had insulin resistance, and 20.2% demonstrated a moderate to severe insulin secretory defect. Among those with insulin resistance, a high proportion of subjects (79.0%) had a mild or no insulin secretory defect. Only 2.6% of the men and 1.9% of the women had both insulin resistance and a moderate to severe insulin secretory defect. CONCLUSION: In this study, patients with early phase type 2 diabetes demonstrated increased insulin resistance, but preserved insulin secretion, with a high prevalence of obesity and metabolic syndrome.