Rapid response of fly populations to gene dosage across development and generations.

Although the effects of genetic and environmental perturbations on multicellular organisms are rarely restricted to single phenotypic layers, our current understanding of how developmental programs react to these challenges remains limited. Here, we have examined the phenotypic consequences of disturbing the bicoid regulatory network in early Drosophila embryos. We generated flies with two extra copies of bicoid, which causes a posterior shift of the network's regulatory outputs and a decrease in fitness. We subjected these flies to EMS mutagenesis, followed by experimental evolution. After only 8-15 generations, experimental populations have normalized patterns of gene expression and increased survival. Using a phenomics approach, we find that populations were normalized through rapid increases in embryo size driven by maternal changes in metabolism and ovariole development. We extend our results to additional populations of flies, demonstrating predictability. Together, our results necessitate a broader view of regulatory network evolution at the systems level.

Mutational scans reveal differential evolvability of Drosophila promoters and enhancers.

Rapid enhancer and slow promoter evolution have been demonstrated through comparative genomics. However, it is not clear how this information is encoded genetically and if this can be used to place evolution in a predictive context. Part of the challenge is that our understanding of the potential for regulatory evolution is biased primarily toward natural variation or limited experimental perturbations. Here, to explore the evolutionary capacity of promoter variation, we surveyed an unbiased mutation library for three promoters in Drosophila melanogaster. We found that mutations in promoters had limited to no effect on spatial patterns of gene expression. Compared to developmental enhancers, promoters are more robust to mutations and have more access to mutations that can increase gene expression, suggesting that their low activity might be a result of selection. Consistent with these observations, increasing the promoter activity at the endogenous locus of shavenbaby led to increased transcription yet limited phenotypic changes. Taken together, developmental promoters may encode robust transcriptional outputs allowing evolvability through the integration of diverse developmental enhancers. This article is part of the theme issue 'Interdisciplinary approaches to predicting evolutionary biology'.

Multiple Changes Underlie Allelic Divergence of CUP2 Between Saccharomyces Species.

Under the model of micromutationism, phenotypic divergence between species is caused by accumulation of many small-effect changes. While mapping the causal changes to single nucleotide resolution could be difficult for diverged species, genetic dissection via chimeric constructs allows us to evaluate whether a large-effect gene is composed of many small-effect nucleotide changes. In a previously described non-complementation screen, we found an allele difference of CUP2, a copper-binding transcription factor, underlies divergence in copper resistance between Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. uvarum Here, we tested whether the allele effect of CUP2 was caused by multiple nucleotide changes. By analyzing chimeric constructs containing four separate regions in the CUP2 gene, including its distal promoter, proximal promoter, DNA binding domain and transcriptional activation domain, we found that all four regions of the S. cerevisiae allele conferred copper resistance, with the proximal promoter showing the largest effect, and that both additive and epistatic effects are likely involved. These findings support a model of multiple changes underlying evolution and suggest an important role of both protein coding and cis-regulatory changes in evolution.

Mitochondria-encoded genes contribute to evolution of heat and cold tolerance in yeast.

Genetic analysis of phenotypic differences between species is typically limited to interfertile species. Here, we conducted a genome-wide noncomplementation screen to identify genes that contribute to a major difference in thermal growth profile between two reproductively isolated yeast species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces uvarum. The screen identified only a single nuclear-encoded gene with a moderate effect on heat tolerance, but, in contrast, revealed a large effect of mitochondrial DNA (mitotype) on both heat and cold tolerance. Recombinant mitotypes indicate that multiple genes contribute to thermal divergence, and we show that protein divergence in COX1 affects both heat and cold tolerance. Our results point to the yeast mitochondrial genome as an evolutionary hotspot for thermal divergence.

Mitochondrial DNA and temperature tolerance in lager yeasts.

A growing body of research suggests that the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) is important for temperature adaptation. In the yeast genus Saccharomyces, species have diverged in temperature tolerance, driving their use in high- or low-temperature fermentations. Here, we experimentally test the role of mtDNA in temperature tolerance in synthetic and industrial hybrids (Saccharomyces cerevisiae × Saccharomyces eubayanus or Saccharomyces pastorianus), which cold-brew lager beer. We find that the relative temperature tolerances of hybrids correspond to the parent donating mtDNA, allowing us to modulate lager strain temperature preferences. The strong influence of mitotype on the temperature tolerance of otherwise identical hybrid strains provides support for the mitochondrial climactic adaptation hypothesis in yeasts and demonstrates how mitotype has influenced the world's most commonly fermented beverage.

Cis-Regulatory Divergence in Gene Expression between Two Thermally Divergent Yeast Species.

Gene regulation is a ubiquitous mechanism by which organisms respond to their environment. While organisms are often found to be adapted to the environments they experience, the role of gene regulation in environmental adaptation is not often known. In this study, we examine divergence in cis-regulatory effects between two Saccharomycesspecies, S. cerevisiaeand S. uvarum, that have substantially diverged in their thermal growth profile. We measured allele specific expression (ASE) in the species' hybrid at three temperatures, the highest of which is lethal to S. uvarumbut not the hybrid or S. cerevisiae. We find that S. uvarumalleles can be expressed at the same level as S. cerevisiaealleles at high temperature and most cis-acting differences in gene expression are not dependent on temperature. While a small set of 136 genes show temperature-dependent ASE, we find no indication that signatures of directional cis-regulatory evolution are associated with temperature. Within promoter regions we find binding sites enriched upstream of temperature responsive genes, but only weak correlations between binding site and expression divergence. Our results indicate that temperature divergence between S. cerevisiaeand S. uvarumhas not caused widespread divergence in cis-regulatory activity, but point to a small subset of genes where the species' alleles show differences in magnitude or opposite responses to temperature. The difficulty of explaining divergence in cis-regulatory sequences with models of transcription factor binding sites and nucleosome positioning highlights the importance of identifying mutations that underlie cis-regulatory divergence between species.