Biological control needs evolutionary perspectives of ecological interactions.

While ecological interactions have been identified as determinant for biological control efficiency, the role of evolution remains largely underestimated in biological control programs. With the restrictions on the use of both pesticides and exotic biological control agents (BCAs), the evolutionary optimization of local BCAs becomes central for improving the efficiency and the resilience of biological control. In particular, we need to better account for the natural processes of evolution to fully understand the interactions of pests and BCAs, including in biocontrol strategies integrating human manipulations of evolution (i.e., artificial selection and genetic engineering). In agroecosystems, the evolution of BCAs traits and performance depends on heritable phenotypic variation, trait genetic architecture, selection strength, stochastic processes, and other selective forces. Humans can manipulate these natural processes to increase the likelihood of evolutionary trait improvement, by artificially increasing heritable phenotypic variation, strengthening selection, controlling stochastic processes, or overpassing evolution through genetic engineering. We highlight these facets by reviewing recent studies addressing the importance of natural processes of evolution and human manipulations of these processes in biological control. We then discuss the interactions between the natural processes of evolution occurring in agroecosystems and affecting the artificially improved BCAs after their release. We emphasize that biological control cannot be summarized by interactions between species pairs because pests and biological control agents are entangled in diverse communities and are exposed to a multitude of deterministic and stochastic selective forces that can change rapidly in direction and intensity. We conclude that the combination of different evolutionary approaches can help optimize BCAs to remain efficient under changing environmental conditions and, ultimately, favor agroecosystem sustainability.

Promoting scientific literacy in evolution through citizen science.

Evolutionary understanding is central to biology. It is also an essential prerequisite to understanding and making informed decisions about societal issues such as climate change. Yet, evolution is generally poorly understood by civil society and many misconceptions exist. Citizen science, which has been increasing in popularity as a means to gather new data and promote scientific literacy, is one strategy through which people could learn about evolution. However, despite the potential for citizen science to promote evolution learning opportunities, very few projects implement them. In this paper, we make the case for incorporating evolution education into citizen science, define key learning goals, and suggest opportunities for designing and evaluating projects in order to promote scientific literacy in evolution.

Prey life-history influences the evolution of egg mass and indirectly reproductive investment in a group of free-living insect predators.

The balance between risk and benefit of exploiting resources drives life-history evolution in organisms. Predators are naturally recognized as major drivers of the life-history evolution of their prey. Although prey may also influence the life-history evolution of their predators in the context of an evolutionary arms race, there is far more evidence of the role of predators than of prey.The goal of this study was to investigate the role of prey in life-history evolution of predators using ladybird beetle predators of aphids and coccids. These particular ladybirds and their prey were chosen because literature shows that the pace of life of aphids is faster than that of coccids and this difference is reflected in the life histories of the ladybirds that specialize on feeding on aphids or coccids.Thirty-four species of ladybird predators of aphids and eight of coccids belonging to five different tribes were collected and reared in the laboratory. The females were weighed as well as their eggs, and their reproductive investment estimated as the number of ovarioles. Phylogenetic relatedness was controlled for in the statistical analyses.Controlling for female mass revealed that ladybird predators of aphids lay bigger eggs than ladybird predators of coccids. This difference is not influenced by phylogenetic relatedness but only by the type of prey eaten. We suggest that ladybird predators of coccids lay smaller eggs because neonate larvae do not have to search, catch, and subdue prey. Both types of ladybirds have a similar reproductive investment relative to their body mass when phylogeny is controlled for.Recognizing the influence of prey on the life-history evolution of predators is important for understanding food web dynamics. From an applied perspective, this fine evolutionary tuning of prey-predator relationships should be used to guide and increase the efficiency of biological control programs.

An annotated checklist of ladybeetle species (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae) of Portugal, including the Azores and Madeira Archipelagos.

A comprehensive annotated checklist of the ladybeetle species of Portugal, including the Azores and Madeira archipelagos, is presented. The Coccinellidae fauna comprises a total of 101 species: 83 from the Mainland, 39 from Madeira, and 32 from the Azores. The listed species are distributed among 2 sub-families and 13 tribes: within the subfamily Microweiseinae, Madeirodulini (1 species), Serangiini (2 species), and within the subfamily Coccinellinae, Azyini (1 species), Chilocorini (4 species), Coccidulini (7 species), Coccinellini (30 species), Epilachnini (4 species), Hyperaspidini (7 species), Noviini (2 species), Platynaspini (1 species), Scymnini (37 species), Stethorini (3 species), and Sticholotidini (2 species). The Portuguese fauna comprises 10 exotic species: 5 present in the Mainland, 7 in Madeira, and 6 in the Azores. Harmoniaaxyridis (Pallas, 1773) from Madeira, Propyleaquatuordecimpunctata (Linnaeus, 1758) from the Azores, Delphastuscatalinae (Horn, 1895) from the Azores and Madeira, Nephus (Geminosipho) reunioni (Fürsch, 1974) and Nephus (Nephus) voeltzkowi Weise, 1910 from Madeira and Microserangium sp. from the Mainland, are reported for the first time. Some species are considered doubtful records, as explained in the text. These results were obtained by compiling information on the available literature regarding ladybeetle species on the Portuguese mainland and insular territories, and original data.

New synonym of Nephus (Nephus) voeltzkowi Weise (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), with comments on the origin of a Neartic population and its possible asexual status.

Coccinellidae (Coleoptera), commonly known as ladybirds or ladybugs, are a highly diversified family comprising nearly 6000 described species (Vandenberg 2002) distributed in 2 subfamilies and 24 tribes (Seago et al. 2011). The genus Nephus Mulsant, 1846, present worldwide, is currently placed in the vast Coccidulini tribe (Seago et al. 2011). There are different classifications for Nephus: Gordon (1976, 1985) considered five Nephus subgenera (Depressoscymnus Gordon, Nephus Mulsant, Scymnobius Casey, Sidis Mulsant, and Turboscymnus Gordon), while Fürsch (1987) considered nine Nephus subgenera, and later (Fürsch 1996) excluded Diomus Mulsant, 1850 as subgenus, leaving Bipunctatus Fürsch, 1987, Depressoscymnus Gordon, 1976, Geminosipho Fürsch, 1987, Nephus Mulsant, 1846, Parascymnus Chapin, 1965, Scymnobius Casey, 1899, Sidis Mulsant, 1850 and Turboscymnus Gordon, 1976. Gordon and González (2002) elevated Scymnobius to genus.

A new species of Nephus (Nephus) (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae) described from Reunion Island.

We report here a new species belonging to Nephus (Nephus) Mulsant. Nephus (Nephus) apoloniasp. nov. was collected in the Reunion Island (Mascarene Archipelago, Indian Ocean). We describe this new species and redescribe and illustrate three other Nephus species already known from Reunion: Nephus (Nephus) oblongosignatus Mulsant, 1850, Nephus (Geminosipho) reunioni (Fürsch, 1974) and Nephus (Nephus) voeltzkowi Weise, 1910. Furthermore, we present a phylogenetic tree for these four species and calculate the genetic distances between them, using high-throughput DNA sequencing of the mitochondrial genome. The similar external morphology of N. apolonia sp. nov. and N. voeltzkowi very probably explains why individuals from the first species have been mistakenly identified as the latter and were not recognized as different until now. Other than external and genitalia traits, the present study provides molecular evidence confirming these are indeed two different species.

Intraspecific difference among herbivore lineages and their host-plant specialization drive the strength of trophic cascades.

Trophic cascades - the indirect effect of predators on non-adjacent lower trophic levels - are important drivers of the structure and dynamics of ecological communities. However, the influence of intraspecific trait variation on the strength of trophic cascade remains largely unexplored, which limits our understanding of the mechanisms underlying ecological networks. Here we experimentally investigated how intraspecific difference among herbivore lineages specialized on different host plants influences trophic cascade strength in a terrestrial tri-trophic system. We found that the occurrence and strength of the trophic cascade are strongly influenced by herbivores' lineage and host-plant specialization but are not associated with density-dependent effects mediated by the growth rate of herbivore populations. Our findings stress the importance of intraspecific heterogeneities and evolutionary specialization as drivers of trophic cascade strength and underline that intraspecific variation should not be overlooked to decipher the joint influence of evolutionary and ecological factors on the functioning of multi-trophic interactions.

Different phenotypic plastic responses to predators observed among aphid lineages specialized on different host plants.

The role of intraspecific variation in the magnitude and direction of plastic responses in ecology and evolution is increasingly recognized. However, the factors underlying intraspecific variation in plastic responses remain largely unexplored, particularly for the hypothesis that the herbivores' phenotypic response to predators might vary amongst lineages associated with different host plants. Here, we tested whether plant-specialized lineages of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, differed in their transgenerational phenotypic response to ladybird predators (i.e., the asexual production of winged offspring by wingless mothers). In a full factorial laboratory experiment, we found that six aphid clonal lineages each specialized either on alfalfa or clover significantly differed in their transgenerational phenotypic response to predators. Some lineages produced an increased number of winged aphids in predator presence while others did not respond. Aphid lineages specialized on alfalfa had stronger phenotypic responses to predators than those specialized on clover. Although we tested only six aphid lineages from two biotypes, our results imply that intraspecific variation in prey phenotypic response of herbivores to predators differs amongst lineages specialized on different host plants. Our findings therefore raise the question of the influence of plant specialization in shaping herbivore phenotypic responses, and highlight the need to consider multi-trophic interactions to understand the causes and consequences of intraspecific variation in complex phenotypic traits.

The evolution of chemical defenses along invasion routes: Harmonia axyridis Pallas (Coccinellidae: Coleoptera) as a case study.

The evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis (Blossey & Nötzold, 1995) postulates that escaping from coevolved enemies increases invaders fitness by energy reallocation from defenses and immunity to growth and reproduction. In this context, we evaluated the evidence of evolutionary change in invasive populations of Harmonia axyridis Pallas (Coccinellidae: Coleoptera). We measured egg defenses-cocktail of hydrocarbons on the egg's surface flagging egg toxicity and the concentration of the main alkaloid harmonine-in individuals from three populations along the invasion route (Japan: native, United States: introduced more than 30 years ago, South Africa: introduced in the early 2000s) in a common garden experiment. Our results support the EICA hypothesis: We found changes along the invasion route in the profiles of the hydrocarbons coating the eggs' surface and a decrease in the concentration of harmonine in eggs from the most recent invasive South African population compared to the long established in the United States and the native Japanese ones.

Evolution without standing genetic variation: change in transgenerational plastic response under persistent predation pressure.

Transgenerational phenotypic plasticity is a fast non-genetic response to environmental modifications that can buffer the effects of environmental stresses on populations. However, little is known about the evolution of plasticity in the absence of standing genetic variation although several non-genetic inheritance mechanisms have now been identified. Here we monitored the pea aphid transgenerational phenotypic response to ladybird predators (production of winged offspring) during 27 generations of experimental evolution in the absence of initial genetic variation (clonal multiplication starting from a single individual). We found that the frequency of winged aphids first increased rapidly in response to predators and then remained stable over 25 generations, implying a stable phenotypic reconstruction at each generation. We also found that the high frequency of winged aphids persisted for one generation after removing predators. Winged aphid frequency then entered a refractory phase during which it dropped below the level of control lines for at least two generations before returning to it. Interestingly, the persistence of the winged phenotype decreased and the refractory phase lasted longer with the increasing number of generations of exposure to predators. Finally, we found that aphids continuously exposed to predators for 22 generations evolved a significantly weaker plastic response than aphids never exposed to predators, which, in turn, increased their fitness in presence of predators. Our findings therefore showcased an example of experimental evolution of plasticity in the absence of initial genetic variation and highlight the importance of integrating several components of non-genetic inheritance to detect evolutionary responses to environmental changes.

Overwintering aggregations are part of Hippodamia undecimnotata's (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) mating system.

Aggregation during diapause is a common phenomenon in arthropods that nevertheless remains poorly understood. The most commonly claimed benefit is that survival is higher in aggregations but animal aggregations could also be driven by sexual selection. In this perspective, we investigated whether aggregations in insects could be part of their mating system. We studied the overwintering aggregations of the ladybird Hippodamia undecimnotata (Schneider), an aphidophagous species from Southern and Eastern Europe as well as Asia. We collected ladybirds at three aggregation sites in Southwest France, during two overwintering periods (2013-2014 and 2014-2015). We checked their reproductive status by counting the viable sperm cells in the sperm storage organs of both males and females, and by assessing the ovarian status of females. We also investigated if mating behaviour occurred in these aggregations. We found that males have a high quantity of viable sperm cells (70-95%) in their reproductive organs throughout the overwintering periods. In contrast, although most females (85-95%) had empty spermatheca at the onset of the aggregations in autumn, the majority (65-91%) had numerous viable sperm in their spermatheca at the time of dispersal from the aggregation in early spring. Furthermore, frequent copulations were observed towards the end of the overwintering period, few weeks before dispersal. These results suggest that finding sexual mates may have been involved in overwintering aggregations in H. undecimnotata.

Genetic diversity and structuring across the range of a widely distributed ladybird: focus on rear-edge populations phenotypically divergent.

Population genetics and phenotypic structures are often predicted to vary along the geographic range of a species. This phenomenon would be accentuated for species with large range areas, with discontinuities and marginal populations. We herein compare the genetic patterns of central populations of Coccinella septempunctata L. with those of two phenotypically differentiated populations considered as rear-edge populations and subspecies based on phenotype (Algeria and Japan). According to the central-marginal model and expected characteristics of rear-edge populations, we hypothesize that these rear-edge populations have (1) a reduced genetic diversity, resulting from their relative isolation over long periods of time, (2) a higher population genetic differentiation, explained by low contemporary gene flow levels, and (3) a relationship between genetic diversity characteristics and phenotypes, due to historical isolation and/or local adaptation. Based on genotyping of 28 populations for 18 microsatellite markers, several levels of regional genetic diversity and differentiation are observed between and within populations, according to their localization: low within-population genetic diversity and higher genetic differentiation of rear-edge populations. The genetic structuring clearly dissociates the Algerian and Eastern Asia populations from the others. Geographical patterns of genetic diversity and differentiation support the hypothesis of the central-marginal model. The pattern observed is in agreement with the phenotypic structure across species range. A clear genetic break between populations of Algeria, the Eastern Asia, and the remaining populations is a dominant feature of the data. Differential local adaptations, absence of gene flow between marginal and central populations, and/or incapacity to mate after colonization, have contributed to their distinct genotypic and phenotypic characteristics.

Osteorradionecrose em pacientes submetidos à radioterapia de cabeça e pescoço: relato de caso / Osteoradionecrosis in patients undergoing radiotherapy for head and neck: case report

Objetivo: a osteorradionecrose (ORN) é conceituada como necrose asséptica de tecido ósseo, desenvolvida após radioterapia em pacientes com tumores de cabeça e pescoço. A mandibula apresenta alto risco de desenvolverORN quando comparada à maxila, devido à sua pobre vascularização. O objetivo deste estudo é realizar uma revisão de literatura e reportar um caso clínico de ORN. Relato de caso: este trabalho reporta um caso deORN em mandibula tratado com debridamento cirúrgico e aplicação de laserterapia de baixa intensidade (LILT) em uma paciente do sexo feminino, com 57 anos de idade. Considerações finais: pacientes submetidosà radioterapia necessitam do acompanhamento de um profissional capacitado a diagnosticar precocemente patologias dentárias e maxilofaciais decorrentes da radioterapia bem como conduzir o tratamento adequado para suas eventuais sequelas, durante e após a radioterapia.

The role of semiochemicals in short-range location of aggregation sites in Adalia bipunctata (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae).

To survive unfavorable periods, ladybird beetles form conspicuous aggregations in specific microsites, with these locations remaining the same year after year. This constancy of location leads to the hypothesis that semiochemicals are involved in the attraction and aggregation of ladybirds to the microsite. In this study, we identified two types of semiochemicals that could play key roles in the attraction and aggregation formation of the two-spotted ladybird, Adalia bipunctata. We first isolated and identified three alkylmethoxypyrazines from A. bipunctata and tested the behavioral responses of diapausing ladybirds to these chemicals in a four-way olfactometer. This revealed that 2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine, on its own or as part of a two-component mixture with 2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine, elicited a positive behavioral response, causing arrestment of diapausing A. bipunctata. As ladybirds are in contact with each other in aggregations, we investigated the role of cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) in driving the cohesion and maintenance of aggregation. When an extract of CHCs from diapausing ladybirds was deposited near an alkylmethoxypyrazine source, ladybirds spent more time in the vicinity of the source. We identified a set of CHCs specific to diapausing A. bipunctata. Alkylmethoxyyrazines and CHCs thus deliver information to diapausing ladybirds searching for an aggregation site, as well as mediating several other behaviors throughout the ladybird's life cycle. Chemical parsimony is discussed.

Can things get worse when an invasive species hybridizes? The harlequin ladybird Harmonia axyridis in France as a case study.

So far, only a few studies have explicitly investigated the consequences of admixture for the adaptative potential of invasive populations. We addressed this question in the invasive ladybird Harmonia axyridis. After decades of use as a biological control agent against aphids in Europe and North America, H. axyridis recently became invasive in four continents and has now spread widely in Europe. Despite this invasion, a flightless strain is still sold as a biological control agent in Europe. However, crosses between flightless and invasive individuals yield individuals able to fly, as the flightless phenotype is caused by a single recessive mutation. We investigated the potential consequences of admixture between invasive and flightless biological control individuals on the invasion in France. We used three complementary approaches: (i) population genetics, (ii) a mate-choice experiment, and (iii) a quantitative genetics experiment. The invasive French population and the biological control strain showed substantial genetic differentiation, but there are no reproductive barriers between the two. Hybrids displayed a shorter development time, a larger size and a higher genetic variance for survival in starvation conditions than invasive individuals. We discuss the potential consequences of our results with respect to the invasion of H. axyridis in Europe.