2D Gel Electrophoresis Analysis of Leishmania Proteomes.

2D gel electrophoresis enables resolution of intact proteins in complex mixtures and is thus useful for comparative proteomic analysis, particularly of posttranslationally modified proteoforms that might not be distinguished by shotgun proteomic analysis of peptides. 2D gel electrophoresis is a multistep procedure that can require sample-specific optimization. We present a comprehensive protocol that is effective for 2D electrophoretic analysis of proteins from Leishmania promastigotes and may also be employed for Leishmania amastigotes and for trypanosomes.

Proteomic analysis of glycosomes from Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes.

In Trypanosoma cruzi, the causal agent of Chagas disease, the first seven steps of glycolysis are compartmentalized in glycosomes, which are authentic but specialized peroxisomes. Besides glycolysis, activity of enzymes of other metabolic processes have been reported to be present in glycosomes, such as ß-oxidation of fatty acids, purine salvage, pentose-phosphate pathway, gluconeogenesis and biosynthesis of ether-lipids, isoprenoids, sterols and pyrimidines. In this study, we have purified glycosomes from T. cruzi epimastigotes, collected the soluble and membrane fractions of these organelles, and separated peripheral and integral membrane proteins by Na2CO3 treatment and osmotic shock. Proteomic analysis was performed on each of these fractions, allowing us to confirm the presence of enzymes involved in various metabolic pathways as well as identify new components of this parasite's glycosomes.

Integration of proteomics and metabolomics to elucidate metabolic adaptation in Leishmania.

Leishmania parasites multiply and develop in the gut of a sand fly vector in order to be transmitted to a vertebrate host. During this process they encounter and exploit various nutrients, including sugars, and amino and fatty acids. We have previously generated a mutant Leishmania line that is deficient in glucose transport and which displays some biologically important phenotypic changes such as reduced growth in axenic culture, reduced biosynthesis of hexose-containing virulence factors, increased sensitivity to oxidative stress, and dramatically reduced parasite burden in both insect vector and macrophage host cells. Here we report the generation and integration of proteomic and metabolomic approaches to identify molecular changes that may explain these phenotypes. Our data suggest changes in pathways of glycoconjugate production and redox homeostasis, which likely represent adaptations to the loss of sugar uptake capacity and explain the reduced virulence of this mutant in sand flies and mammals. Our data contribute to understanding the mechanisms of metabolic adaptation in Leishmania and illustrate the power of integrated proteomic and metabolomic approaches to relate biochemistry to phenotype. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: This paper reports the application of comparative proteomic and metabolomic approaches to reveal the molecular basis for important phenotypic changes Leishmania parasites that are deficient in glucose uptake. Leishmania cause a very significant disease burden across the world and there are few effective drugs available for control. This work shows that proteomics and metabolomics can produce complementary data that advance understanding of parasite metabolism and highlight potential new targets for chemotherapy.

A glucose transporter can mediate ribose uptake: definition of residues that confer substrate specificity in a sugar transporter.

Sugars, the major energy source for many organisms, must be transported across biological membranes. Glucose is the most abundant sugar in human plasma and in many other biological systems and has been the primary focus of sugar transporter studies in eukaryotes. We have previously cloned and characterized a family of glucose transporter genes from the protozoan parasite Leishmania. These transporters, called LmGT1, LmGT2, and LmGT3, are homologous to the well characterized glucose transporter (GLUT) family of mammalian glucose transporters. We have demonstrated that LmGT proteins are important for parasite viability. Here we show that one of these transporters, LmGT2, is a more effective carrier of the pentose sugar d-ribose than LmGT3, which has a 6-fold lower relative specificity (V(max)/K(m)) for ribose. A pair of threonine residues, located in the putative extracellular loops joining transmembrane helices 3 to 4 and 7 to 8, define a filter that limits ribose approaching the exofacial substrate binding pocket in LmGT3. When these threonines are substituted by alanine residues, as found in LmGT2, the LmGT3 permease acquires ribose permease activity that is similar to that of LmGT2. The location of these residues in hydrophilic loops supports recent suggestions that substrate recognition is separated from substrate binding and translocation in this important group of transporters.

A new erythrose 4-phosphate dehydrogenase coupled assay for transketolase.

The standard assay for transketolase (E.C 2.2.1.1) has depended upon the use of D-xylulose 5-phosphate as the ketose donor substrate since the production of D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate can be readily coupled to a reaction that consumes NADH allowing the reaction to be followed spectrophotometrically. Unfortunately, commercial supplies of D-xylulose 5-phosphate recently became unavailable. In this article we describe the coupling of a transketolase reaction (using Leishmania mexicana transketolase) that converts D-fructose 6-phosphate to D-erythrose 4-phosphate. D-Erythrose 4-phosphate can then be converted to 4-phosphate D-erythronate using erythrose-4-phosphate dehydrogenase (E.C 1.2.1.72), a reaction that reduces NAD+ to NADH and can be easily followed spectrophotometrically. D-Ribose 5-phosphate and D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate can both be used as ketol acceptor substrates in the reaction although D-ribose 5-phosphate is also a substrate for the coupling enzyme.

Protein kinases as drug targets in trypanosomes and Leishmania.

Protein kinases represent promising drug targets for a number of human and animal diseases. The recent completion of the sequenced genomes of three human-infective trypanosomatid protozoa, Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi, has allowed the kinome for each parasite to be defined as 179, 156 and 171 eukaryotic protein kinases respectively, that is about one third of the human complement. The analysis revealed that the trypanosomatids lack members of the receptor-linked or cytosolic tyrosine kinase families, but have an abundance of STE and CMGC family protein kinases likely to be involved in regulating cell cycle control, differentiation and response to stress during their complex life-cycles. In this review, we examine the prospects for exploiting differences between parasite and mammalian protein kinases to develop novel anti-parasitic chemotherapeutic agents.

A plethora of targets, a paucity of drugs: progress towards the development of novel chemotherapies for human African trypanosomiasis.

Human African trypanosomiasis is a major health problem in large regions of Africa. Current chemotherapeutic options are limited and far from ideal. A diverse range of drug targets has been identified and validated in trypanosomes. These include several organelles (glycosomes, acidocalcisomes, kinetoplast) that are not represented in the mammalian host and biochemical pathways that differ significantly from host counterparts (carbohydrate metabolism, protein and lipid modification, response to oxidative stress, cell cycle). However, there has been little progress in developing novel drugs. Pharmaceutical companies are unwilling to invest in the development of drugs for a market that comprises some of the worlds poorest people. This review highlights some of the most attractive drug targets in trypanosomes.