[Which maintenance intravenous fluid in paediatrics in 2015?]. / Pédiatrie. 5. Quel soluté de maintenance intraveineux en pédiatrie en 2015?

For 50 years, hypotonic solutions have been used as liquid of maintenance in paediatrics owing to the article of Holliday and Segar. For two decades, studies have shown that these hypotonic fluids can foster the acquisition of hyponatremias. The most recent literature data (meta-analysis and randomized studies) confirm that hypotonic fluids are not suitable for children hospitalized with surgical or medical problems. Current recommendations must take these results into account and advocate the use of isotonic saline solutions as maintenance intravenous fluid therapy.

Field evaluation of the CATT/Trypanosoma brucei gambiense on blood-impregnated filter papers for diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis in southern Sudan.

Most Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) control programmes in areas endemic for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense rely on a strategy of active mass screening with the Card Agglutination Test for Trypanosomiasis (CATT)/T. b. gambiense. We evaluated the performance, stability and reproducibility of the CATT/T. b. gambiense on blood-impregnated filter papers (CATT-FP) in Kajo-Keji County, South-Sudan, where some areas are inaccessible to mobile teams. The CATT-FP was performed with a group of 100 people with a positive CATT on whole blood including 17 confirmed HAT patients and the results were compared with the CATT on plasma (CATT-P). The CATT-FP was repeated on impregnated filter papers stored at ambient and refrigerated temperature for 1, 3, 7 and 14 days. Another 82 patients with HAT, including 78 with a positive parasitology, were tested with the CATT-FP and duplicate filter paper samples were sent to a reference laboratory to assess reproducibility. The CATT-FP was positive in 90 of 99 patients with HAT (sensitivity: 91%). It was less sensitive than the CATT-P (mean dilution difference: -2.5). There was no significant loss of sensitivity after storage for up to 14 days both at ambient and cool temperature. Reproducibility of the CATT-FP was found to be excellent (kappa: 0.84). The CATT-FP can therefore be recommended as a screening test for HAT in areas where the use of CATT-P is not possible. Further studies on larger population samples in different endemic foci are still needed before the CATT-FP can be recommended for universal use.

Aflatoxin genes and the aflatoxigenic potential of Koji moulds.

Sixty-four Aspergillus isolates, 54 of which originated from food fermentations, and 18 Aspergillus reference strains were identified and screened for the presence of aflatoxin genes aflR and omt-1. Among the Koji moulds, not only A. oryzae but also A. flavus strains were found. Furthermore, 27% of A. oryzae and 93% of A. flavus strains lacked either aflR or both aflR- and omt-1. A selection of 29 strains was also checked for the presence of pksA and nor-1. This revealed large deletions in the aflatoxin gene cluster of some strains. The hybridisation patterns also suggested a polarity in the deletion events, originating in the vicinity of pksA and extending towards omt-1. Other strains exhibited BamHI restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) for either aflR or for aflR and omt-1. All aflR and/or omt-1 deletion strains turned out to be unable to produce aflatoxin. The RFLP-carrying strains either produced only traces of aflatoxin or none at all. In 73% of the A. oryzae strains, no apparent deletions were detected with the aflR and omt-1 probes. Nevertheless, after incubation in aflatoxin-inducing media, no aflatoxin B1 production could be detected in those A. oryzae strains.

Distinct pathways involved in sound recognition and localization: a human fMRI study.

Evidence from psychophysical studies in normal and brain-damaged subjects suggests that auditory information relevant to recognition and localization are processed by distinct neuronal populations. We report here on anatomical segregation of these populations. Brain activation associated with performance in sound identification and localization was investigated in 18 normal subjects using fMRI. Three conditions were used: (i) comparison of spatial stimuli simulated with interaural time differences; (ii) identification of environmental sounds; and (iii) rest. Conditions (i) and (ii) required acknowledgment of predefined targets by pressing a button. After coregistering, images were normalized and smoothed. Activation patterns were analyzed using SPM99 for individual subjects and for the whole group. Sound recognition and localization activated, as compared to rest, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate body, Heschl gyrus, and parts of the temporal, parietal, and frontal convexity bilaterally. The activation pattern on the fronto-temporo-parietal convexity differed in the two conditions. Middle temporal gyrus and precuneus bilaterally and the posterior part of left inferior frontal gyrus were more activated by recognition than by localization. Lower part of inferior parietal lobule and posterior parts of middle and inferior frontal gyri were more activated, bilaterally, by localization than by recognition. Regions selectively activated by sound recognition, but not those selectively activated by localization, were significantly larger in women. Passive listening paradigm revealed segregated pathways on superior temporal gyrus and inferior parietal lobule. Thus, anatomically distinct networks are involved in sound recognition and sound localization.

Production of ochratoxin A by Aspergillus carbonarius on coffee cherries.

Robusta coffee cherries collected before and during sun drying from two coffee farms in Thailand were examined for moulds producing ochratoxin A (OA). Aspergillus ochraceus was only detected in one sample, whereas Aspergillus carbonarius was isolated from 7 out of 14 samples. On gamma-irradiated coffee cherries, each of the six tested A. carbonarius strains produced OA. More than 4800 microg kg(-1) of toxin were detected under optimal conditions (25 degrees C, a(w) 0.99). OA production was strongly reduced (230 microg kg(-1)) at an a(w) of 0.94.

Non-destructive automated sampling of mycotoxins in bulk food and feed - A new tool for required harmonization.

Mycotoxins contamination is highly non-uniformly distributed as is well recog-nized by the EC, by not only setting legal limits in a series of commodities, but also schedule a sampling plan that takes this heterogeneity into account. In practice however, it turns out that it is very difficult to carry out this sampling plan in a harmonised way. Applying the sampling plan to a container filled with pallets of bags (i.e. with nuts or coffee beans) varies from very laborious to almost impossible. The presented non-destructive automated method to sample bulk food could help to overcome these practical problems and to enforcing of EC directives. It is derived from a tested and approved technology for detection of illicit substances in security applications. It has capability to collect and iden-tify ultra trace contaminants, i.e. from a fingerprint of chemical substance in a bulk of goods, a cargo pallet load (~ 1000 kg) with boxes and commodities.The technology, patented for explosives detection, uses physical and chemistry processes for excitation and remote rapid enhanced release of contaminant residues, vapours and particulate, of the inner/outer surfaces of inspected bulk and collect them on selective probes. The process is automated, takes only 10 minutes, is non-destructive and the bulk itself remains unharmed. The system design is based on applicable international regulations for shipped cargo hand-ling and transportation by road, sea and air. After this process the pallet can be loaded on a truck, ship or plane. Analysis can be carried out before the cargo leaves the place of shipping. The potent application of this technology for myco-toxins detection, has been demonstrated by preliminary feasibility experiments. Aflatoxins were detected in pistachios and ochratoxin A in green coffee beans bulk. Both commodities were naturally contaminated, priory found and confirm-ed by common methods as used at routine inspections. Once the contaminants are extracted from a bulk shipment, an appropriate existing analytical method, i.e. a CEN method, can be used to measure the mycotoxins.The system, routinely in use for explosives detection, was able to screen bulk food and feed for mycotoxins, through non-destructive automated sampling of a whole batch/lot/sublot of commodities. The opportunity to sample a whole bulk would provide more effective tools for inspection at seaports, production facili-ties and distri-bution points. It will advance the current process of myco-toxins check because: (i) Checks will be automated and harmonized, (ii) Checks will be non-destructive, (iii) Checks will be faster and allow a greater amount of bulk commodities to be inspected and (iv) The ability to check, with automated equipment, larger portions of lots of a shipment will increase the probability to detect the heterogeneous mycotoxins contamination in bulk foods. The poster provides some results of feasibility experiments indicating the capability of this technology for inspection of commodities bulks for the detection of mycotoxins, at legal limits, in naturally contaminated food.

Development of ochratoxin A during robusta (Coffea canephora) coffee cherry drying.

The occurrence and formation of ochratoxin A (OTA) in Robusta coffee was studied for three consecutive seasons under tropical conditions in Thailand. Sun drying of coffee cherries consistently led to OTA formation in the pulp and parchment (husks) of the cherries. In replicated trials, dried coffee beans (green coffee) were shown to contain on average OTA concentrations that were approximately 1% of those found in husks. OTA contamination of green coffee depended on cherry maturity, with green cherries being the least, and overripe cherries the most susceptible. Defects, and in particular the inclusion of husks, are the most important source of OTA contamination. OTA contamination occurred independently of whether cherries were placed on concrete, on bamboo tables, or on the ground. The study suggests that better raw material quality, an appropriate drying and dehulling procedure combined with a reduction of green coffee defects can effectively contribute to the reduction of OTA in green coffee.

Behavior of Ochratoxin A during Green Coffee Roasting and Soluble Coffee Manufacture.

As considerable inconsistencies are found in the literature regarding the influence of roasting and subsequent operations on the ochratoxin A (OTA) content of green coffee, experiments were undertaken to assess the evolution of OTA along an industrial soluble coffee manufacturing line. Both the variability and the amount of OTA naturally present in a lot of Thai Robusta green coffee were drastically reduced during soluble coffee manufacture. A small proportion of OTA was eliminated during green coffee cleaning, but the most significant reduction took place during roasting. The roast and ground coffee contained only 16% of the OTA originally present in the green coffee. Two phenomena are responsible for the elimination of OTA during roasting: a thermal degradation and a removal with chaff. Thermal degradation is the most important route of elimination, with <20% accounted for by the chaff. A further 20% reduction was observed during soluble coffee manufacture, so that the powder contained only 13% of the OTA initially present in the green beans.

Screening of European coffee final products for occurrence of ochratoxin A (OTA).

Samples (633) of final coffee products were drawn from the markets of different European countries relative to the market share of each product type and brand. These samples were analysed in a cooperative action with nine different laboratories. With low limits of detection (mean detection limit approximately 0.5 ng/g) no OTA was found in over half of the samples (334 negatives). In the remaining samples occurrence of OTA at a rather low level was seen. Only four samples (all instants) exceeded a level of 10 ng/g, whereas for both instants, and roast and grounds (R & G), over three-quarters of the samples were in the range from nondetectable to 1 ng/g. The overall mean for all R & Gs was 0.8 ng/g and for all instant 1.3 ng/g (for samples in which no OTA was detected, half of the detection limit was included in this calculation). In the brewing methods frequently used in Europe the OTA is essentially fully extracted. Consumption of four cups of coffee per day (approximately 24 g R & G or approximately 8 g instant coffee) contributes on average 19 or 10 ng/day respectively. Four cups/day is above the per caput consumption level in most European contries. Compared with the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) recently set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives at 100 ng/kg bodyweight/week, consumption of 28 cups/week contributes up to 2% to the PTWI.

Variacin, a new lanthionine-containing bacteriocin produced by Micrococcus varians: comparison to lacticin 481 of Lactococcus lactis.

A new lanthionine-containing bacteriocin, variacin, displaying a broad host range of inhibition against gram-positive food spoilage bacteria, has been identified from two strains of Micrococcus varians isolated from meat fermentations. The new bacteriocin was purified, and its amino-terminal end and total amino acid composition were determined. The structural gene was isolated and analyzed. Variacin is resistant to heat and pH conditions from 2 to 10. Its primary sequence shows significant homology to lacticin 481 to Lactococcus lactis, which is more pronounced for the probacteriocin than for the leader sequence. Variacin, like lacticin 481, contains lanthionine and beta-methyllanthionine residues, but its leader sequence clearly resembles nonlantibiotic leader sequences. In particular, the prepeptide contains glycine residues at positions -1 and -2 of the processing site.

Keeping the mycotoxins out: experience gathered by an international food company.

As early as the mid-1960s the analysis of aflatoxins became an important part of Nestlé's quality control programme, especially since the Company's products include a wide variety of milk- and cereal-based foods intended for infants and children. At that time, dealing with this problem was hampered by the lack of simple and reliable analytical methods, the absence of legal provisions in many countries, the widely different origin of the raw materials, and the fact that sources of contamination were often beyond the Company's control. However, over the years substantial progress has been made, mainly by setting up an inspection system including suitable methods of analysis that allow compliance with raw material specifications to be checked at source. In spite of the fact that the problem of aflatoxins in milk, cereals, and oilseeds has now been largely tackled, it is increasingly necessary to step up our mycotoxin surveillance programme. Indeed, several other mycotoxins have now become a matter of concern, as witnessed by the recent fumonisin scare. Moreover, increasingly severe legislations put a heavy burden on the analysts responsible for the inspection of the raw materials, especially in European countries. This article presents the Company's considerable efforts over a period of almost 30 years in trying to keep the mycotoxins out, or at least to limit their concentrations to the lowest possible levels.

Different tissue-specific expression of the amylase gene Amy-1 in mice and rats.

We cloned the rat alpha-amylase gene Amy-1 and compared its structure and expression with its mouse counterpart. The results showed that the general organization of the transcriptionally active rat Amy-1 gene was similar to that of its mouse counterpart; i.e., the rat gene also contained two independent transcriptional promoters. The distance between the two promoters in the rat gene was, however, more than double (6 kilobases) that measured in the mouse gene (2.8 kilobases). In addition, the rat genome also contained an independent, orphonlike version of the weaker Amy-1 promoter, which was transcriptionally silent. In spite of the similar overall organization of the Amy-1 genes in mouse and rat cells, an interesting difference was observed in the expression of the weak promoter in these two closely related rodents. In rats this promoter was significantly active only in liver cells, while in mice it was utilized with similar efficiencies in parotid, liver, and pancrease cells. Moreover, the transcripts produced in rat liver had a very heterogeneous population of 5' ends, located between 180 and 220 nucleotides upstream of the two homologous start sites observed for this promoter in mouse liver, even though the sequences around this region were strongly conserved between the two species.

Measurement of interfacial areas in aerobic fermentations by ultrasonic pulse transmission.

The penetration of ultrasonic waves through opaque media and the large difference in the acoustic properties between air bubbles and the fermentation broth were used to measure the energy attenuation of pulsed ultrasound by the bubbles as the waves passed through the broth. This leads to an on-line determination of the specific interfacial area provided information is available about the holdup or bubble mean diameter. This article gives the principle of the method and demonstrates how the measured interfacial area may be used in evaluating the mass transfer coefficient of a fermentation system in a bubble column.

Nonproductive kappa immunoglobulin genes: recombinational abnormalities and other lesions affecting transcription, RNA processing, turnover, and translation.

Six nonproductive kappa immunoglobulin genes (kappa- alleles) were cloned and sequenced. The structural abnormalities discerned from sequence analysis were correlated with functional lesions at the level of transcription, RNA processing, turnover, and translation. Four kappa- alleles, three containing V kappa genes and one not, are transcribed at normal or even greater than normal rates, the defects in these genes being expressed at various posttranscriptional levels. The other two kappa- alleles, both of which lacked V genes, exhibited greatly depressed yet clearly detectable transcriptional activity. These results are consistent with a hierarchical relationship between enhancer and promoter elements in which the enhancer establishes transcriptional competence at the kappa locus and the promoter (or pseudopromoter) determines the relative level of transcriptional activity. One of the structural abnormalities discovered in this study, a large deletion which removes the entire J kappa region, also provides new insight into the mechanism of VJ and VDJ recombination.

Mouse alpha-amylase loci, Amy-1a and Amy-2a, are closely linked.

We have cloned a contiguous 106 X 10(3) base-pair long stretch of mouse DNA. The isolated chromosomal DNA segment contains the single copy gene Amy-1a that is strongly expressed in the parotid gland and, 23 X 10(3) base-pairs downstream from it, one member of the pancreas-specific Amy-2a oligogene family. At least two of the four Amy-2a genes, including the copy linked to Amy-1a, are efficiently transcribed. The cloned DNA sequences do not appear to specify messenger RNAs other than those encoding alpha-amylase in pancreas, parotid gland or liver. Transcription termination on Amy-1a occurs within 3 X 10(3) base-pairs downstream from the polyadenylation site in both parotid gland and liver, in which this gene is transcribed at different rates from different promoters.

Two promoters of different strengths control the transcription of the mouse alpha-amylase gene Amy-1a in the parotid gland and the liver.

We show that two promoters of different strengths are involved in the tissue-specific expression of the alpha-amylase gene Amy-1a in the parotid gland and the liver of mouse. The weaker of the two promoters directs the synthesis of mRNA with a liver-type leader sequence. This promoter is active in both tissues. A promoter that is about 30-fold stronger is exclusively active in the parotid, where it directs the synthesis of an mRNA with a parotid-specific leader sequence. Neither the parotid nor the liver promoter is used in tissues that do not contain cytoplasmic alpha-amylase mRNAs, such as brain, kidney, and spleen. Nuclear transcripts that are initiated several kilobases upstream of the parotid cap site are detected in several tissues. They are most abundant in brain, and are apparently not processed into alpha-amylase mRNA.