Effect of Vaccination Against E. coli, C. perfringens Type A/C on Piglet Productive and Clinical Parameters Under Field Conditions.

Background: One of the main strategies to control neonatal porcine diarrhoea (NPD) is through vaccination of the sows. This study aimed to compare the efficacy of two commercial vaccination schemes under field conditions on a farm where a C. perfringens type A cpb2-positive strain was implicated in NPD. Methods: This study was performed in a farrow-to-wean herd with 5500 sows, already using an E. coli and C. perfringens vaccine but still suffering NPD. Where the presence of a C. perfringens type A cpb2-positive strain was confirmed, Enteroporc Coli AC® (Ceva) was administrated to the sows in group A according to the manufacturer's instructions. Sows in group B were vaccinated using two other combined commercial vaccines. In each group, piglets from 10 litters were ear-tagged and individually weighed at birth and at 8 and 22 days of age. The incidence of diarrhoea, general piglet body condition, and antimicrobial treatment were recorded within 10 consecutive days after birth. Results: A total of 234 piglets (119 in group A and 115 in group B) were included. The mean weight gain of piglets from birth to 22 days of age was significantly higher in group A (4.99 kg) than in group B (4.66 kg) (p = 0.039). The rest of the recorded parameters such as the presence of diarrhoea, the piglet's body condition score, and the number of days with antimicrobial treatment did not differ significantly between groups. Conclusions: This study confirmed the efficiency of the Enteroporc Coli AC® vaccine in reducing clinical symptoms of diarrhoea in piglets, which was comparable with the other vaccines used in the study. The positive effect on piglets' productive performance during the lactation phase was observed.

Whole genome characteristics of hedgehog coronaviruses from Poland and analysis of the evolution of the Spike protein for its interspecies transmission potential.

BACKGROUND: The hedgehogs have been recently identified as possible reservoir of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus like (MERS-CoV-like). These viruses were classified as a distinct Betacoronavirus erinacei (BCoV-Eri) species within the MerBCoV-Eriirus subgenus. As coronaviruses are known for their ability to jump between different hosts, including humans, this can pose a particular threat to people in direct contact with hedgehogs, such as those working at animal asylums. Our previous studies have shown the presence of BCoV-Eri strains in animals collected in the wildlife rehabilitation centre. This study aimed to investigate the presence of CoV in subsequent hedgehogs collected from the urban area of Poland and their molecular characteristics. RESULTS: Monitoring for the presence of coronavirus infection in hedgehogs revealed five positive individuals. The presence of BCoV-Eri was found in a total of 20% of animals tested. Our analyses revealed no correlation between CoVs positivity and animal health conditions but a higher probability of such infection in juveniles and females. The whole genome of two Polish Hedgehog coronavirus 1 strains were sequenced and compared with available counterparts from European and Asian countries. Phylogenetic analysis showed that both CoV strains formed common cluster with other similar MerBCoV-Eriirus, but they were also found to be genetically variable and most changes in the S protein were identified. Our analysis revealed that some S protein sites of the Hedgehog coronavirus 1 strains evolved under positive selection pressure and of five such sites, three are in the S1 region while the other two in the S2 region of the Spike. CONCLUSIONS: BCoV-Eri is to some extent prevalent in wildlife asylums in Poland. Given that the S protein of BCoVs-Eri is highly variable and that some sites of this protein evolve under positive selection pressure, these strains could potentially acquire a favourable feature for cross-species transmission. Consequently, the threat to humans working in such asylums is particularly high. Adequate biosecurity safeguards, but also human awareness of such risks, are therefore essential.

Prevalence of coronaviruses in European bison (Bison bonasus) in Poland.

Coronaviruses have been confirmed to infect a variety of species, but only one case of associated winter dysentery of European bison has been described. The study aimed to analyze the prevalence, and define the impact on the species conservation, the source of coronavirus infection, and the role of the European bison in the transmission of the pathogen in Poland. Molecular and serological screening was performed on 409 European bison from 6 free-ranging and 14 captive herds over the period of 6 years (2017-2023). Presence of coronavirus was confirmed in one nasal swab by pancoronavirus RT-PCR and in 3 nasal swab samples by bovine coronavirus (BCoV) specific real time RT-PCR. The detected virus showed high (> 98%) homology in both RdRp and Spike genes to BCoV strains characterised recently in Polish cattle and strains isolated from wild cervids in Italy. Antibodies specific to BCoV were found in 6.4% of tested samples, all originating from free-ranging animals. Seroprevalence was higher in adult animals over 5 years of age (p = 0.0015) and in females (p = 0.09). Our results suggest that European bison play only a limited role as reservoirs of bovine-like coronaviruses. Although the most probable source of infections in the European bison population in Poland is cattle, other wild ruminants could also be involved. In addition, the zoonotic potential of bovine coronaviruses is quite low.

Concentrations of selected immunological parameters in the serum and processing fluid of suckling piglets and the serum and colostrum of their mothers.

BACKGROUND: Blood sampling from neonatal piglets is related to multiple disadvantages. Therefore, a new, alternative matrix is required to assess piglets' early immune status efficiently. The present study aimed to assess the usefulness of processing fluid for determining selected piglets' immune parameters. 264 pigs - 31 sows, 146 male piglets, and 87 female piglets from commercial indoor farrow-to-finish pig herd were included in this study. 264 serum, 31 colostrum, and 146 processing fluid samples were collected. Serum was collected from all animals, colostrum was collected from sows, and processing fluid was collected from male piglets only. Using commercial ELISA tests, the concentration of various immunoglobulins, cytokines, and acute phase proteins was assessed in each matrix. Statistical analyses were employed to determine differences in the concentration of measured indices between piglets' serum and processing fluid and correlations in the concentration of tested indices between particular sets of matrices. RESULTS: Statistical analyses did not reveal significant differences in the IgG, IgA, IL-1ß, IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-γ concentration between piglets' serum and processing fluid (p > 0.05). A positive correlation (p < 0.05) regarding the concentration of some indices between processing fluid and samples collected from sows was also observed. CONCLUSIONS: Processing fluid can be considered a promising alternative to blood for assessing some immunological indices in piglets, such as IgG, IgA, IL-1ß, IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-γ, and, possibly, in the indirect assessment of some indices in lactating sows, including IgA, IL-1ß, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IFN-γ, or Pig-MAP.

Seroprevalence of Neospora caninum in pet cats, dogs and rabbits from urban areas of Poland.

BACKGROUND: Neospora caninum (N. caninum) has a broad intermediate host range and might cause multisystemic lesions in various species of animals. Dogs are both intermediate and definitive hosts of the parasite and play a crucial role in the horizontal transmission of this protozoan to other animals. Cats and rabbits could be sensitive to infection with N. caninum, however, clinical symptoms and the exact route of infection in these species are unknown. The epidemiology of N. caninum in cats and rabbits has been barely researched, and there is no published record of the seroprevalence of N. caninum infection in these species in Poland. Thus, the present study aimed to determine the frequency of seroreagents for N. caninum within pet dogs, cats and rabbits from urban areas of Poland and to identify possible risk factors for these animals. RESULTS: In total, serum samples from 184 cats (Felis catus), 203 dogs (Canis familiaris) and 70 rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) were used in the study. The seroprevalence of anti-N. caninum antibodies in dogs and cats reached 1.0% (2/203; 95% CI: 0.3-3.5) and 3.3% (6/184; 95% CI: 1.5-6.9), respectively. No significant differences in seroprevalence regarding age group, gender, symptoms or sampling location were found. All 70 samples from pet rabbits were negative for anti-N. caninum antibodies. CONCLUSIONS: The seroprevalence rates of N. caninum in dogs and cats in the present study were low, however, our results confirmed N. caninum circulates among dog and cat populations in Poland, and neosporosis should be included in the differential diagnosis of neuro-muscular disorders in these species. This is the first serological survey of N. caninum in European pet cats and rabbits. The role of pet rabbits in N. caninum epidemiology and circulation in Poland is marginal.

No evidence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection among pet cats and dogs, and low seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus among pet rabbits in Poland.

The seroprevalence of Paslahepevirus balayani genotype 3 (hepatitis E virus genotype 3 - HEV-3; Hepeviridae family, genus Paslahepevirus) in pet cats, dogs and rabbits was evaluated. Samples from cats and dogs were collected from three veterinary practices from various parts of Poland: Poznan (wielkopolskie voivodeship), Przemysl (podkarpackie voivodeship) and Lublin (lubelskie voivodeship). Samples from rabbits were collected in Poznan. In total, serum samples from 90 cats, 82 dogs and 71 rabbits were selected and tested for specific anti-HEV-3 immunoglobulin (IgG) antibodies using a commercial ELISA test. Pathogen seroprevalence among rabbits was calculated at a 95% confidence interval (CI) for each gender, age (up to 12 months, 1-3 years, 4-7 years and over 8 years), symptoms group (healthy, gastrointestinal disorders, other disorders) and compared with a chi-squared test. No anti-HEV-3 IgG antibodies were detected in any of the samples from cats and dogs. Anti-HEV-3 IgG antibodies were detected in 2.82% of the serum samples from rabbits (2/71; 95% CI: 0.78-9.70). No significant correlations between seropositivity and gender, age, and symptoms (p > 0.05) were observed in rabbits. Our findings indicate that pet rabbits in Poland are exposed to HEV-3, develop humoral response due to infection and might constitute a source for HEV-3 transmission to humans.

Hepatitis E Virus in Livestock-Update on Its Epidemiology and Risk of Infection to Humans.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a public health problem worldwide and an important food pathogen known for its zoonotic potential. Increasing numbers of infection cases with human HEV are caused by the zoonotic transmission of genotypes 3 and 4, mainly by consuming contaminated, undercooked or raw porcine meat. Pigs are the main reservoir of HEV. However, it should be noted that other animal species, such as cattle, sheep, goats, and rabbits, may also be a source of infection for humans. Due to the detection of HEV RNA in the milk and tissues of cattle, the consumption of infected uncooked milk and meat or offal from these species also poses a potential risk of zoonotic HEV infections. Poultry infected by avian HEV may also develop symptomatic disease, although avian HEV is not considered a zoonotic pathogen. HEV infection has a worldwide distribution with different prevalence rates depending on the affected animal species, sampling region, or breeding system.

An Update in Knowledge of Pigs as the Source of Zoonotic Pathogens.

The available data indicate that the human world population will constantly grow in the subsequent decades. This constant increase in the number of people on the Earth will lead to growth in food demand, especially in food of high nutritional value. Therefore, it is expected that the world livestock population will also increase. Such a phenomenon enhances the risk of transmitting pathogens to humans. As pig production is one of the most significant branches of the world's livestock production, zoonoses of porcine origins seem to be of particular importance. Therefore, in this review, we aim to introduce the latest data concerning, among other things, epidemiology and available preventive measures to control the most significant porcine zoonoses of viral, bacterial, and parasitic origin.

Outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus in cats, Poland, June to July 2023.

BackgroundOver a 3-week period in late June/early July 2023, Poland experienced an outbreak caused by highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) virus in cats.AimThis study aimed to characterise the identified virus and investigate possible sources of infection.MethodsWe performed next generation sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of detected viruses in cats.ResultsWe sampled 46 cats, and 25 tested positive for avian influenza virus. The identified viruses belong to clade 2.3.4.4b, genotype CH (H5N1 A/Eurasian wigeon/Netherlands/3/2022-like). In Poland, this genotype was responsible for several poultry outbreaks between December 2022 and January 2023 and has been identified only sporadically since February 2023. Viruses from cats were very similar to each other, indicating one common source of infection. In addition, the most closely related virus was detected in a dead white stork in early June. Influenza A(H5N1) viruses from cats possessed two amino acid substitutions in the PB2 protein (526R and 627K) which are two molecular markers of virus adaptation in mammals. The virus detected in the white stork presented one of those mutations (627K), which suggests that the virus that had spilled over to cats was already partially adapted to mammalian species.ConclusionThe scale of HPAI H5N1 virus infection in cats in Poland is worrying. One of the possible sources seems to be poultry meat, but to date no such meat has been identified with certainty. Surveillance should be stepped up on poultry, but also on certain species of farmed mammals kept close to infected poultry farms.

Vaccination Failures in Pigs-The Impact of Chosen Factors on the Immunisation Efficacy.

Infectious diseases that often lead to economic losses still pose a severe problem in the pig production sector. Because of increasing restrictions on antibiotic usage, vaccines may become one of the major approaches to controlling infectious diseases; much research has proved that they could be very efficient. Nevertheless, during their life, pigs are exposed to various factors that can interfere with vaccination efficacy. Therefore, in the present paper, we reviewed the influence of chosen factors on the pig immunisation process, such as stress, faecal microbiota, host genetics, the presence of MDAs, infections with immunosuppressive pathogens, and treatment with antibiotics and mycotoxins. Many of them turned out to have an adverse impact on vaccine efficacy.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in domestic cats, dogs and rabbits from Poland.

The seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in domestic cats, dogs and rabbits was evaluated. Samples from cats and dogs were collected from five veterinary practices from various parts of Poland - Poznan (wielkopolskie voivodeship), Przemysl (podkarpackie voivodeship), Kluczbork (opolskie voivodeship), Lublin (lubelskie voivodeship) and Deblin (lubelskie voivodeship). Moreover, the samples from rabbits were collected in Poznan. In total, serum samples from 193 cats, 204 dogs and 71 rabbits were randomly selected and tested for specific antibodies against T. gondii using a commercial ELISA test. Pathogen seroprevalence among cats and dogs was calculated at a 95% confidence interval (CI) for each sex and age category (up to 12 months, 1-3 years, 4-7 years and over 8 years) and compared with a chi-squared test. The highest seroprevalence of T. gondii was noted in cats - 49.74% (96/193; 95% CI: 42.76-56.73). In dogs, it reached 28.92% (59/204; 95% CI: 23.13-35.49). Only 1 rabbit (3-year-old male) was seropositive, and the seroprevalence in rabbits was 1.41% (1/71; 95% CI: 0.25-7.56). A statistically significant correlation between seropositivity and age (p < 0.05) was observed in cats and dogs. No statistically significant difference in seroprevalence concerning gender or location was found in cats and dogs. Our findings indicate that cat and dog serum samples had a high frequency of anti-T. gondii antibodies, while rabbit serum samples had low frequency and that these species are exposed to T. gondii in Poland and develop humoral response due to infection.

A Literature Review of Selected Bacterial Diseases in Alpacas and Llamas-Epidemiology, Clinical Signs and Diagnostics.

The breeding of South American Camelids (SACs), particularly llamas and alpacas, is becoming increasingly popular in regions that are not their natural habitat, including Europe. These animals are considered to be relatively disease resistant. However, due to their growing popularity, special attention should be given to infections in llamas and alpacas. Knowledge of bacterial infections is very important to veterinarians and breeders. Many of these diseases also have zoonotic potential, so these animals must be considered as sources of potential zoonotic infections. Due to the limited information on many diseases occurring in llamas and alpacas, veterinarians often rely on data collected in other animal species, focusing on cattle, sheep and horses. This work aims to summarise the knowledge of diseases caused by Clostridium spp., Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, Streptococcus spp., Escherichia coli, Pasteurella multocida, Manheimia haemolytica and Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis in llamas and alpacas, with particular attention to epidemiology, clinical signs and diagnostics.

Serum Concentrations of Immunoglobulins and Cortisol Around Parturition in Clinically Healthy Sows and Sows with Postpartum Dysgalactia Syndrome (PDS).

Introduction: This study aimed to determine the profile of immunoglobulins and cortisol concentrations in serum around the periparturient period in sows suffering from postpartum dysgalactia syndrome (PDS) and in healthy sows. Material and Methods: A total of 45 sows with lactation impairment (Group PDS) and 58 clinically healthy sows with a physiological peripartum period (Group H) were subjected to a serological test (ELISA) for measurement of serum immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM, and IgA) and cortisol concentration. Results: The serum contents of IgG, IgM and IgA had highly similar profiles in PDS-affected sows and healthy ones. A significantly higher concentration of IgG at 28 and 14 days ante partum compared to days 3 and 7 post partum was only observed in Group H. The mean cortisol content remained at a highly similar level throughout the entire experiment in both groups. Conclusion: The results of the study indicate that lactation impairment such as PDS did not influence the immunoglobulin or cortisol concentration in sow serum.

Effect of Serial in Vivo Passages on The Adaptation of H1N1 Avian Influenza Virus To Pigs.

Introduction: The lack of proofreading activity of the viral polymerase and the segmented nature of the influenza A virus (IAV) genome are responsible for the genetic diversity of IAVs and for their ability to adapt to a new host. We tried to adapt avian IAV (avIAV) to the pig by serial passages in vivo and assessed the occurrence of point mutations and their influence on viral fitness in the pig's body. Material and Methods: A total of 25 in vivo avIAV passages of the A/duck/Bavaria/77 strain were performed by inoculation of 50 piglets, and after predetermined numbers of passages 20 uninoculated piglets were exposed to the virus through contact with inoculated animals. Clinical signs of swine influenza were assessed daily. Nasal swabs and lung tissue were used to detect IAV RNA by real-time RT-PCR and isolates from selected passages were sequenced. Results: Apart from a rise in rectal temperature and a sporadic cough, no typical clinical signs were observed in infected pigs. The original strain required 20 passages to improve its replication ability noticeably. A total of 29 amino-acid substitutions were identified. Eighteen of them were detected in the first sequenced isolate, of which 16 were also in all other analysed strains. Additional mutations were detected with more passages. One substitution, threonine (T) 135 to serine (S) in neuraminidase (NA), was only detected in an IAV isolate from a contact-exposed piglet. Conclusion: Passaging 25 times allowed us to obtain a partially swine-adapted IAV. The improvement in isolate replication ability was most likely related to S654 to glycine (G) substitution in the basic protein (PB) 1 as well as to aspartic acid (D) 701 to asparagine (N) and arginine (R) 477 to G in PB2, glutamic acid (E) 204 to D and G239E in haemagglutinin and T135S in NA.

Canine cystic endometrial hyperplasia and pyometra may downregulate neuropeptide phoenixin and GPR173 receptor expression.

The most common uterine diseases affecting bitches are cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) and pyometra. The neuropeptide phoenixin (PNX) and its receptor (GPR173) are potential key factors involved in the proliferative and inflammatory regulation of the reproductive system in females. This study aimed to evaluate the expression of PNX and GPR173 by qPCR, western blot and immunofluorescence assays in the endometrium of bitches suffering from CEH or pyometra compared to clinically healthy females. Additionally, PNX and progesterone (P4) plasma concentrations were analysed. The results showed a significantly lower expression levels of PNX and GPR173 (mRNA and protein production) in bitches with the CEH or pyometra groups compared to healthy animals. Immunofluorescence staining examination also confirmed a lower concentration of PNX and GPR173 signals in bitches with pathological uteri. Moreover, a lower concentration of PNX blood levels in bitches suffering from pyometra was observed. The PNX concentration was negatively correlated with P4 but only in healthy bitches. These results illustrate that the development of canine uterine disorders may cause a lower expression of PNX and its receptor GPR173.

Novel Porcine Circoviruses in View of Lessons Learned from Porcine Circovirus Type 2-Epidemiology and Threat to Pigs and Other Species.

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) plays a key role in PCV2-associated disease (PCVAD) etiology and has yielded significant losses in the pig husbandry in the last 20 years. However, the impact of two recently described species of porcine circoviruses, PCV3 and PCV4, on the pork industry remains unknown. The presence of PCV3 has been associated with several clinical presentations in pigs. Reproductive failure and multisystemic inflammation have been reported most consistently. The clinical symptoms, anatomopathological changes and interaction with other pathogens during PCV3 infection in pigs indicate that PCV3 might be pathogenic for these animals and can cause economic losses in the swine industry similar to PCV2, which makes PCV3 worth including in the differential list as a cause of clinical disorders in reproductive swine herds. Moreover, subsequent studies indicate interspecies transmission and worldwide spreading of PCV3. To date, research related to PCV3 and PCV4 vaccine design is at early stage, and numerous aspects regarding immune response and virus characteristics remain unknown.

First detection of Hedgehog coronavirus 1 in Poland.

Hedgehogs are common in the majority of European countries and are known to host various pathogens, including viruses. The recent discovery of MERS-related coronaviruses (CoVs) in hedgehogs from Germany, France, the UK, China, and Italy suggests that hedgehogs may represent a wild reservoir of betacoronaviruses. This study reports the first detection and characterization of novel betacoronovirus, subgenus Merbecovirus in wild hedgehogs in Poland. The CoV RNA was detected in 10 out of 40 hedgehogs' rectal swabs and in 1 out of 18 samples of the lung. No viral RNA was identified in the duodenum and kidney. There was no significant relationship between clinical status, gender, hedgehogs' age, and coronaviral RNA detection. Phylogenetic analysis showed that CoVs detected in our study grouped together with other representatives of Hedgehog coronavirus 1 species identified in Western Europe. Our findings provide further evidence that hedgehogs are a natural reservoir of Merbecovirus. Considering the high mutation rate of CoVs and their potential for crossing interspecies barriers, the proper management of hedgehogs admitted to wildlife rehabilitation centres is needed. It cannot be excluded that merbecovirus strains detected in hedgehogs may recombine with other CoVs leading to new viruses with potential for interspecies transmission.

Selected Livestock-Associated Zoonoses as a Growing Challenge for Public Health.

The aim of this paper is to review the most significant livestock-associated zoonoses. Human and animal health are intimately connected. This idea has been known for more than a century but now it has gained special importance because of the increasing threat from zoonoses. Zoonosis is defined as any infection naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans. As the frequency and prevalence of zoonotic diseases increase worldwide, they become a real threat to public health. In addition, many of the newly discovered diseases have a zoonotic origin. Due to globalization and urbanization, some of these diseases have already spread all over the world, caused by the international flow of goods, people, and animals. However, special attention should be paid to farm animals since, apart from the direct contact, humans consume their products, such as meat, eggs, and milk. Therefore, zoonoses such as salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, tuberculosis, swine and avian influenza, Q fever, brucellosis, STEC infections, and listeriosis are crucial for both veterinary and human medicine. Consequently, in the suspicion of any zoonoses outbreak, the medical and veterinary services should closely cooperate to protect the public health.

Acute-phase protein concentrations in serum of clinically healthy and diseased European bison (Bison bonasus) - preliminary study.

BACKGROUND: This is the first report describing levels of APPs in European bison. Serum concentration of acute phase proteins (APPs) may be helpful to assess general health status in wildlife and potentially useful in selecting animals for elimination. Since there is a lack of literature data regarding concentration of APPs in European bisons, establishment of the reference values is also needed. METHODS: A total of 87 European bison from Polish populations were divided into two groups: (1) healthy: immobilized for transportation, placing a telemetry collar and routine diagnostic purposes; and (2) selectively culled due to the poor health condition. The serum concentration of haptoglobin, serum amyloid A and α1-acid-glycoprotein were determined using commercial quantitative ELISA assays. Since none of the variables met the normality assumptions, non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test was used for all comparisons. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Statistical analyses were performed using Statistica 13.3 (Tibco, USA). RESULTS: The concentration of haptoglobin and serum amyloid A was significantly higher in animals culled (euthanised) due to the poor condition in respect to the clinically healthy European bison. The levels of α1-acid-glycoprotein did not show statistical difference between healthy and sick animals. CONCLUSIONS: Correlation between APPs concertation and health status was proven, therefore the determination of selected APPs may be considered in future as auxiliary predictive tool in assessing European bison health condition.