Demonstrating evidence of acceptability: the "catch-22" of pediatric formulation development.

Both researchers and practitioners have reached an influential period in the new era of developing pediatric medicines. Evolving regulatory reforms and guidance continue to serve as platforms steering research and development while distinctive opportunities and challenges in the field emerge. An advancing research need involves gaining a better understanding of end-user requirements and acceptability of formulations. This review considers solid oral forms to demonstrate the importance of such research to stakeholders in policy and practice.

Exposure of newborn male and female rats to environmental estrogens: delayed and sustained hyperprolactinemia and alterations in estrogen receptor expression.

Environmental estrogens (xenoestrogens) are synthetic compounds that are abundant in the environment and mimic natural estrogens. The estrogenicity of two such compounds, bisphenol A (BPA) and octylphenol (OP), during development of the neuroendocrine system was investigated. The objective was to compare the effects of neonatal exposure to BPA, OP, and diethylstilbestrol (DES), a potent synthetic estrogen, on prepubertal serum PRL levels and estrogen receptor (ER) expression in the anterior pituitary and medial basal hypothalamus. Receptor expression in the uterus and prostate, two peripheral estrogen-responsive tissues, was also examined. Newborn male and female Fischer 344 rats were s.c. injected on days 1-5 after birth with corn oil (control), BPA and OP (100 or 500 microg/day), or DES (5 microg/day). Rats were bled on days 15, 20, and 25 and on the day of death (day 30), and serum PRL was analyzed by RIA. Relative expressions of ERalpha and ERbeta were determined by RT-PCR. BPA and OP induced delayed, but progressive, increases in serum PRL levels, up to 3-fold above control levels, in both males and females. The low dose of either compound was equally or more effective as the high dose in eliciting and sustaining elevated serum PRL levels, namely hyperprolactinemia. In contrast, the DES treatment resulted in a transient rise in serum PRL levels. BPA, OP, and, to a lesser extent, DES increased the expression of both ERalpha and ERbeta in the anterior pituitary of males, but not females, whereas the hypothalamic ERs were less responsive to these compounds. DES treatment caused down-regulation of ERalpha expression in the uterus and up-regulation of ERbeta in the prostate, whereas BPA or OP was without effect. In conclusion, exposure of newborn rats of either sex to environmental estrogens results in delayed and sustained hyperprolactinemia and differential alterations in ER expression in the hypothalamus and pituitary. DES appears to target the lower reproductive tract more effectively than the neuroendocrine system.