Case detection delay in leprosy: Testing tool reliability and measurement consistency in Ethiopia, Mozambique, and Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Case detection delay (CDD) in leprosy is defined as the period between the onset of the first signs and symptoms and the time of diagnosis. A tool, consisting of a questionnaire and a detailed guide for researchers, which includes photos of typical skin signs and notes on establishing the timing of events, was developed to determine this period of delay in months in recently diagnosed leprosy patients. The aims of the study were to determine the reliability and consistency of this CDD assessment tool. METHODS: This study was conducted in Ethiopia, Mozambique and Tanzania. Two types of consistency were considered: over time (test-retest reliability) and across different researchers (interrater reliability). A CDD questionnaire was administered to 167 leprosy patients who were diagnosed within 6 months prior to their inclusion. One month later, the same or another researcher re-administered the CDD questionnaire to the same patients. Both test-retest and interrater reliability were assessed using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), where a value greater than or equal to 0.7 is considered acceptable. RESULTS: In this study, 10 participants (6.0%) were under 15 years of age, and 56 (33.5%) were women. In the test-retest assessment, the mean CDD from the first and second interviews was 23.7 months (95% CI 14.4-34.8) and 24.0 months (95% CI 14.8-33.2), respectively. The ICC for test-retest reliability was 0.99 (95% CI 0.994-0.997). For the interrater reliability assessment, the first and second interviews revealed a mean CDD of 24.7 months (95% CI 18.2-31.1) and 24.6 months (95% CI 18.7-30.5), respectively, with an ICC of 0.90 (95% CI 0.85-0.94). A standard error of measurement of 0.46 months was found in the test-retest and 1.03 months in the interrater measurement. Most answers given by participants during the first and second interviews were matching (≥86%). Most non-matching answers were in the 0-2 month delay category (≥46%). CONCLUSION: The tool, including a questionnaire to determine the CDD of newly diagnosed leprosy patients, was validated in three African countries. The test-retest and interrater measurements demonstrated that the instrument is reliable and measures consistently. The tool can be used in routine leprosy programmes as well as in research settings. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This trial is registered with The Netherlands Trial Register (NTR), now available via International Clinical Trial Registry Platform (ICTRP) with registration number NL7294 (NTR7503), as well as with The Pan African Clinical Trials Registry (PACTR) with registration number PACTR202303742093429.

The PEP++ study protocol: a cluster-randomised controlled trial on the effectiveness of an enhanced regimen of post-exposure prophylaxis for close contacts of persons affected by leprosy to prevent disease transmission.

BACKGROUND: Leprosy is an infectious disease with a slow decline in global annual caseload in the past two decades. Active case finding and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) with a single dose of rifampicin (SDR) are recommended by the World Health Organization as measures for leprosy elimination. However, more potent PEP regimens are needed to increase the effect in groups highest at risk (i.e., household members and blood relatives, especially of multibacillary patients). The PEP++ trial will assess the effectiveness of an enhanced preventive regimen against leprosy in high-endemic districts in India, Brazil, Bangladesh, and Nepal compared with SDR-PEP. METHODS: The PEP++ study is a cluster-randomised controlled trial in selected districts of India, Brazil, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Sub-districts will be allocated randomly to the intervention and control arms. Leprosy patients detected from 2015 - 22 living in the districts will be approached to list their close contacts for enrolment in the study. All consenting participants will be screened for signs and symptoms of leprosy and tuberculosis (TB). In the intervention arm, eligible contacts receive the enhanced PEP++ regimen with three doses of rifampicin (150 - 600 mg) and clarithromycin (150 - 500 mg) administered at four-weekly intervals, whereas those in the control arm receive SDR-PEP. Follow-up screening for leprosy will be done for each individual two years after the final dose is administered. Cox' proportion hazards analysis and Poisson regression will be used to compare the incidence rate ratios between the intervention and control areas as the primary study outcome. DISCUSSION: Past studies have shown that the level of SDR-PEP effectiveness is not uniform across contexts or in relation to leprosy patients. To address this, a number of recent trials are seeking to strengthen PEP regimens either through the use of new medications or by increasing the dosage of the existing ones. However, few studies focus on the impact of multiple doses of chemoprophylaxis using a combination of antibiotics. The PEP++ trial will investigate effectiveness of both an enhanced regimen and use geospatial analysis for PEP administration in the study communities. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NL7022 on the Dutch Trial Register on April 12, 2018. Protocol version 9.0 updated on 18 August 2022 https://www.onderzoekmetmensen.nl/en/trial/23060.

Communication training for general practitioners aimed at improving antibiotic prescribing: a controlled before-after study in multicultural Dutch cities.

Introduction: Suboptimal doctor-patient communication drives inappropriate prescribing of antibiotics. We evaluated a communication intervention for general practitioners (GPs) in multicultural Dutch cities to improve antibiotic prescribing for respiratory tract infections (RTI). Methods: This was a non-randomized controlled before-after study. The study period was pre-intervention November 2019 ­ April 2020 and post-intervention November 2021 ­ April 2022. The intervention consisted of a live training (organized between September and November 2021), an E-learning, and patient material on antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in multiple languages. The primary outcome was the absolute number of prescribed antibiotic courses indicated for RTIs per GP; the secondary outcome was all prescribed antibiotics per GP. We compared the post-intervention differences in the mean number of prescribed antibiotics between the intervention (N = 25) and the control group (N = 110) by using an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) test, while adjusting for the pre-intervention number of prescribed antibiotics. Additionally, intervention GPs rated the training and their knowledge and skills before the intervention and 3 months thereafter. Results: There was no statistically significant difference in the mean number of prescribed antibiotics for RTI between the intervention and the control group, nor for mean number of overall prescribed antibiotics. The intervention GPs rated the usefulness of the training for daily practice a 7.3 (on a scale from 1­10) and there was a statistically significant difference between pre- and post-intervention on four out of nine items related to knowledge and skills. Discussion: There was no change in GPs prescription behavior between the intervention and control group. However, GPs found the intervention useful and showed some improvement on self-rated knowledge and communication skills.

The roles of the general practitioner and sexual health centre in HIV testing: comparative insights and impact on HIV incidence rates in the Rotterdam area, the Netherlands - a cross-sectional population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Access to HIV testing is crucial for detection, linkage to treatment, and prevention. In less urbanised areas, reliance on general practitioners (GPs) for HIV testing is probable, as sexual health centres (SHC) are mostly located within urbanised areas. Limited insight into individuals undergoing HIV testing stems from sparse standard registration of demographics at GPs. This cross-sectional study aims (1) to assess and compare HIV testing at the GP and SHC, and (2) to assess population- and provider-specific HIV incidence. METHODS: Individual HIV testing data of GPs and SHC were linked to population register data (aged ≥ 15 years, Rotterdam area, 2015-2019). We reported the proportion HIV tested, and compared GP and SHC testing rates with negative binomial generalised additive models. Data on new HIV diagnoses (2015-2019) from the Dutch HIV Monitoring Foundation relative to the population were used to assess HIV incidence. RESULTS: The overall proportion HIV tested was 1.14% for all residents, ranging from 0.41% for ≥ 40-year-olds to 4.70% for Antilleans. The GP testing rate was generally higher than the SHC testing rate with an overall rate ratio (RR) of 1.61 (95% CI: 1.56-1.65), but not for 15-24-year-olds (RR: 0.81, 95% CI: 0.74-0.88). Large differences in HIV testing rate (1.36 to 39.47 per 1,000 residents) and GP-SHC ratio (RR: 0.23 to 7.24) by geographical area were observed. The GPs' contribution in HIV testing was greater for GP in areas further away from the SHC. In general, population groups that are relatively often tested are also the groups with most diagnoses and highest incidence (e.g., men who have sex with men, non-western). The overall incidence was 10.55 per 100,000 residents, varying from 3.09 for heterosexual men/women to 24.04 for 25-29-year-olds. CONCLUSIONS: GPs have a pivotal role in HIV testing in less urbanised areas further away from the SHC, and among some population groups. A relatively high incidence often follows relatively high testing rates. Opportunities to improve HIV testing have been found for migrants, lower-educated individuals, in areas less urbanised areas and further away from GP/SHC. Strategies include additional targeted testing, via for example SHC branch locations and outreach activities.

The value of manual backward contact tracing to control COVID-19 in practice, the Netherlands, February to March 2021: a pilot study.

BackgroundContact tracing has been a key component of COVID-19 outbreak control. Backward contact tracing (BCT) aims to trace the source that infected the index case and, thereafter, the cases infected by the source. Modelling studies have suggested BCT will substantially reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission in addition to forward contact tracing.AimTo assess the feasibility and impact of adding BCT in practice.MethodsWe identified COVID-19 cases who were already registered in the electronic database between 19 February and 10 March 2021 for routine contact tracing at the Public Health Service (PHS) of Rotterdam-Rijnmond, the Netherlands (pop. 1.3 million). We investigated if, through a structured questionnaire by dedicated contact tracers, we could trace additional sources and cases infected by these sources. Potential sources identified by the index were approached to trace the source's contacts. We evaluated the number of source contacts that could be additionally quarantined.ResultsOf 7,448 COVID-19 cases interviewed in the study period, 47% (n = 3,497) indicated a source that was already registered as a case in the PHS electronic database. A potential, not yet registered source was traced in 13% (n = 979). Backward contact tracing was possible in 62 of 979 cases, from whom an additional 133 potential sources were traced, and four were eligible for tracing of source contacts. Two additional contacts traced had to stay in quarantine for 1 day. No new COVID-19 cases were confirmed.ConclusionsThe addition of manual BCT to control the COVID-19 pandemic did not provide added value in our study setting.

Measuring leprosy case detection delay and associated factors in Indonesia: a community-based study.

BACKGROUND: Leprosy is a public health burden in Indonesia with a high number of new cases every year and a high proportion of disability among new cases. Case detection delay (CDD) can contribute to ongoing transmission and increased disability chances among leprosy patients. This study aimed to establish the CDD of leprosy and the factors associated with detection delay in Indonesia. METHOD: Community-based study with a cross-sectional design. Data were collected through interviews about sociodemographic and behavioral factors, anticipated stigma, and duration of CDD. Leprosy classification and case detection methods were obtained from health service records. A random sample was taken of 126 leprosy patients registered between 1st October 2020 and 31st March 2022 in the Tegal regency in the Central Java Province. Data were analysed by descriptive and analytical statistics using multiple linear regression. RESULTS: The mean CDD, patient delay, and health system delay were 13.0 months, 9.7 months, and 3.2 months, respectively. Factors associated with longer CDD are younger age (below 35 years), male, found through passive case detection, and not having a family member with leprosy. Factors associated with longer patient delay were being younger (below 35 years), being male, not having a family member with leprosy, and anticipated stigma of leprosy. It was not possible to reliably identify factors associated with health system delay. CONCLUSION: CDD in leprosy should be reduced in Indonesia. The Indonesian National Leprosy Control Program (NLCP) is advised to adopt an integrated intervention programme combining active case detection with targeted health education to reduce CDD and thereby preventing disabilities in people affected by leprosy.

Testing for sexually transmitted infection: who and where? A data linkage study using population and provider data in the Rotterdam area, the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: In the Netherlands, insight into sexually transmitted infection (STI) testing and characteristics of those tested by general practitioners (GPs) and sexual health centres (SHC) is limited. This is partly due to lacking registration of socio-demographics at GPs. We aimed to fill this gap by linking different registers. METHODS: Individual STI testing data of GPs and SHC were linked to population register data (aged ≥15 years, Rotterdam area, 2015-2019). We reported population-specific STI positivity, proportion STI tested, and GP-SHC testing rate comparison using negative binomial generalised additive models. Factors associated with STI testing were determined by the provider using logistic regression analyses with generalised estimating equations. RESULTS: The proportion of STI tested was 2.8% for all residents and up to 9.8% for younger and defined migrant groups. STI positivity differed greatly by subgroup and provider (3.0-35.3%). Overall, GPs performed 3 times more STI tests than the SHC. The smallest difference in GP-SHC testing rate was for 20-24-year-olds (SHC key group). Younger age, non-western migratory background, lower household income, living more urbanised, and closer to a testing site were associated with STI testing by either GP or SHC. GPs and SHC partly test different groups: GPs test women and lower-educated more often, the SHC men and middle/higher educated. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights GPs' important role in STI testing. The GPs' role in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of STIs needs continued support and strengthening. Inter-professional exchange and collaboration between GP and SHC is warranted to reach vulnerable groups.

Area-based comparison of risk factors and testing rates to improve sexual health care access: cross-sectional population-based study in a Dutch multicultural area.

OBJECTIVES: Areas with high sexually transmitted infection (STI) testing rates may not require additional strategies to improve testing. However, it may be necessary to intervene in areas with elevated STI risk, but with low STI testing rates. We aimed to compare STI-related risk profiles and STI testing rates by geographical area to determine areas for improvement of sexual healthcare access. DESIGN: Cross-sectional population-based study. SETTING: Greater Rotterdam area, the Netherlands (2015-2019). PARTICIPANTS: All residents aged 15-45 years. Individual population-based register data were matched with laboratory-based STI testing data of general practitioners (GPs) and the only sexual health centre (SHC). OUTCOME MEASURES: Postal code (PC) area-specific STI risk scores (based on age, migratory background, education level and urbanisation), STI testing rates and STI positivity. RESULTS: The study area consists of approximately 500 000 residents aged 15-45 years. Strong spatial variation in STI testing, STI positivity and STI risk was observed. PC area testing rate ranged from 5.2 to 114.9 tests per 1000 residents. Three PC clusters were identified based on STI risk and testing rate: (1) high-high; (2) high-low; (3) low, independently of testing rate. Clusters 1 and 2 had comparable STI-related risk and STI positivity, but the testing rate differed greatly (75.8 vs 33.2 per 1000 residents). Multivariable logistic regression analysis with generalised estimating equation was used to compare residents in cluster 1 and cluster 2. Compared with cluster 1, residents in cluster 2 more often did not have a migratory background, lived in less urbanised areas with higher median household income, and more distant from both GP and SHC. CONCLUSION: The determinants associated with individuals living in areas with high STI-related risk scores and low testing rates provide leads for improvement of sexual healthcare access. Opportunities for further exploration include GP education, community-based testing and service (re)allocation.

Establishing a standard method for analysing case detection delay in leprosy using a Bayesian modelling approach.

BACKGROUND: Leprosy is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae and remains a source of preventable disability if left undetected. Case detection delay is an important epidemiological indicator for progress in interrupting transmission and preventing disability in a community. However, no standard method exists to effectively analyse and interpret this type of data. In this study, we aim to evaluate the characteristics of leprosy case detection delay data and select an appropriate model for the variability of detection delays based on the best fitting distribution type. METHODS: Two sets of leprosy case detection delay data were evaluated: a cohort of 181 patients from the post exposure prophylaxis for leprosy (PEP4LEP) study in high endemic districts of Ethiopia, Mozambique, and Tanzania; and self-reported delays from 87 individuals in 8 low endemic countries collected as part of a systematic literature review. Bayesian models were fit to each dataset to assess which probability distribution (log-normal, gamma or Weibull) best describes variation in observed case detection delays using leave-one-out cross-validation, and to estimate the effects of individual factors. RESULTS: For both datasets, detection delays were best described with a log-normal distribution combined with covariates age, sex and leprosy subtype [expected log predictive density (ELPD) for the joint model: -1123.9]. Patients with multibacillary (MB) leprosy experienced longer delays compared to paucibacillary (PB) leprosy, with a relative difference of 1.57 [95% Bayesian credible interval (BCI): 1.14-2.15]. Those in the PEP4LEP cohort had 1.51 (95% BCI: 1.08-2.13) times longer case detection delay compared to the self-reported patient delays in the systematic review. CONCLUSIONS: The log-normal model presented here could be used to compare leprosy case detection delay datasets, including PEP4LEP where the primary outcome measure is reduction in case detection delay. We recommend the application of this modelling approach to test different probability distributions and covariate effects in studies with similar outcomes in the field of leprosy and other skin-NTDs.

Finding Yaws among Indigenous People: Lessons from Case Detection Surveys in Luzon and Visayas Island Groups of the Philippines.

Yaws is a chronic, highly contagious skin and bone infection caused by Treponema pallidum subspecies pertenue, usually affecting children in impoverished and remote communities. Yaws lesions have thick yellow crusts on pink papillomas that ulcerate and leave deep scars. Yaws cases were confirmed in the Liguasan Marsh, Mindanao Island group, Southern Philippines, in 2017, but there were no cases confirmed in the Luzon and Visayas Island groups. We aimed to detect at least one active or latent yaws case in the island groups of Luzon and Visayas. Active yaws surveillance was conducted by inviting healthcare providers to report yaws suspects. Five remote villages were included in the case detection surveys: three in Luzon and two in the Visayas Island groups. Two indigenous peoples communities were included: Aetas of Quezon and Dumagat/Remontados of Rizal provinces. Trained field personnel conducted free skin check-ups of children, household contacts, and community members. Yaws suspects underwent point-of-care serologic tests for T. pallidum and nontreponemal antibodies. A total of 239 participants were screened for skin diseases, and 103 had serologic tests. Only the Aetas of Quezon province, Luzon, had confirmed yaws cases. Nineteen cases (54.3%) were detected among 35 Aetas: five active yaws (four children, one adult), two latent yaws (adults), and 12 past yaws (1 child, 11 adults). An 8-year-old boy had yaws with skeletal deformities. We report the first yaws cases among the Aetas of Quezon, Luzon Island group. Active yaws surveillance and case detection in remote areas and among indigenous peoples should continue.

Identifying clusters of leprosy patients in India: A comparison of methods.

BACKGROUND: Preventive interventions with post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) are needed in leprosy high-endemic areas to interrupt the transmission of Mycobacterium leprae. Program managers intend to use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to target preventive interventions considering efficient use of public health resources. Statistical GIS analyses are commonly used to identify clusters of disease without accounting for the local context. Therefore, we propose a contextualized spatial approach that includes expert consultation to identify clusters and compare it with a standard statistical approach. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We included all leprosy patients registered from 2014 to 2020 at the Health Centers in Fatehpur and Chandauli districts, Uttar Pradesh State, India (n = 3,855). Our contextualized spatial approach included expert consultation determining criteria and definition for the identification of clusters using Density Based Spatial Clustering Algorithm with Noise, followed by creating cluster maps considering natural boundaries and the local context. We compared this approach with the commonly used Anselin Local Moran's I statistic to identify high-risk villages. In the contextualized approach, 374 clusters were identified in Chandauli and 512 in Fatehpur. In total, 75% and 57% of all cases were captured by the identified clusters in Chandauli and Fatehpur, respectively. If 100 individuals per case were targeted for PEP, 33% and 11% of the total cluster population would receive PEP, respectively. In the statistical approach, more clusters in Chandauli and fewer clusters in Fatehpur (508 and 193) and lower proportions of cases in clusters (66% and 43%) were identified, and lower proportions of population targeted for PEP was calculated compared to the contextualized approach (11% and 11%). CONCLUSION: A contextualized spatial approach could identify clusters in high-endemic districts more precisely than a standard statistical approach. Therefore, it can be a useful alternative to detect preventive intervention targets in high-endemic areas.

Delayed detection of leprosy cases: A systematic review of healthcare-related factors.

BACKGROUND: In new leprosy cases, grade 2 disability (G2D) is still a public health burden worldwide. It is often associated with the delayed leprosy diagnoses that healthcare systems should play a crucial role in preventing. The aim of this systematic review was to identify healthcare factors related to delays in case detection in leprosy. METHODS: PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) was used as a guideline in this research. The study protocol was registered in the PROSPERO (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews) with reference code CRD42020189274. Data was collected from five electronic databases: Embase, Medline All Ovid, Web of Science, Cochrane CENTRAL, and the WHO Global Health Library. RESULTS: After applying the selection criteria for original empirical studies, and after removing duplicates, we included 20 papers from 4313 records. They had been conducted in ten countries and published between January 1, 2000, and January 31, 2021. We identified three categories of healthcare factors related to delayed case. 1) Structural factors, such as i) financial and logistic issues, and geographical circumstances (which we classified as barriers); ii) Health service organization and management including the level of decentralization (classified as facilitators). 2) Health service factors, such as problems or shortages involving referral centers, healthcare personnel, and case-detection methods. 3) Intermediate factors, such as misdiagnosis, higher numbers of consultations before diagnosis, and inappropriate healthcare services visited by people with leprosy. CONCLUSIONS: Delays in leprosy case detection are due mainly to misdiagnosis. It is crucial to improve the training and capacity of healthcare staff. To avoid misdiagnosis and reduce detection delays, national leprosy control programs should ensure the sustainability of leprosy control within integrated health services.

Less is more: Developing an approach for assessing clustering at the lower administrative boundaries that increases the yield of active screening for leprosy in Bihar, India.

BACKGROUND: In India, leprosy clusters at hamlet level but detailed information is lacking. We aim to identify high-incidence hamlets to be targeted for active screening and post-exposure prophylaxis. METHODOLOGY: We paid home visits to a cohort of leprosy patients registered between April 1st, 2020, and March 31st, 2022. Patients were interviewed and household members were screened for leprosy. We used an open-source app(ODK) to collect data on patients' mobility, screening results of household members, and geographic coordinates of their households. Clustering was analysed with Kulldorff's spatial scan statistic(SaTScan). Outlines of hamlets and population estimates were obtained through an open-source high-resolution population density map(https://data.humdata.org), using kernel density estimation in QGIS, an open-source software. RESULTS: We enrolled 169 patients and screened 1,044 household contacts in Bisfi and Benipatti blocks of Bihar. Median number of years of residing in the village was 17, interquartile range(IQR)12-30. There were 11 new leprosy cases among 658 household contacts examined(167 per 10,000), of which seven had paucibacillary leprosy, one was a child under 14 years, and none had visible disabilities. We identified 739 hamlets with a total population of 802,788(median 163, IQR 65-774). There were five high incidence clusters including 12% of the population and 46%(78/169) of the leprosy cases. One highly significant cluster with a relative risk (RR) of 4.7(p<0.0001) included 32 hamlets and 27 cases in 33,609 population. A second highly significant cluster included 32 hamlets and 24 cases in 33,809 population with a RR of 4.1(p<0.001). The third highly significant cluster included 16 hamlets and 17 cases in 19,659 population with a RR of 4.8(p<0.001). High-risk clusters still need to be screened door-to-door. CONCLUSIONS: We found a high yield of active household contact screening. Our tools for identifying high-incidence hamlets appear effective. Focusing labour-intensive interventions such as door-to-door screening on such hamlets could increase efficiency.

Perspectives of Immigrants and Native Dutch on Antibiotic Use: A Qualitative Study.

Immigrants constitute large proportions of the population in many high-income countries. Knowledge about their perceptions of antibiotics, in comparison to native populations, is limited. We explored these perceptions by organizing nine homogeneous focus group discussions (FGDs) with first-generation immigrant and native Dutch participants (N = 64) from Rotterdam and Utrecht, who were recruited with the assistance of immigrant (community support) organizations. The FGDs were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Inductive thematic analyses were performed with the qualitative analysis software Atlas.ti, using open and axial coding. We did not find noteworthy differences between immigrants and native Dutch participants; all participants had an overall reluctant attitude towards antibiotics. Within-group differences were larger than between-group differences. In each FGD there were, for instance, participants who adopted an assertive stance in order to receive antibiotics, who had low antibiotic-related knowledge, or who used antibiotics incorrectly. Native Dutch participants expressed similar difficulties as immigrant participants in the communication with their GP, which mainly related to time constraints. Immigrants who encountered language barriers experienced even greater communicational difficulties and reported that they often feel embarrassed and refrain from asking questions. To stimulate more prudent use of antibiotics, more attention is needed for supportive multilingual patient materials. In addition, GPs need to adjust their information, guidance, and communication for the individual's needs, regardless of the patient's migration background.

Stigma, psychosocial and economic effects of yaws in the Philippines: an exploratory, qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Yaws is a chronic, non-venereal, highly contagious skin and bone infection affecting children living in impoverished, remote communities and caused by Treponema pallidum subspecie pertenue. Social stigma and economic losses due to yaws have been reported anecdotally in the Southern Philippines but have not been well-documented. OBJECTIVE: To describe and compare the psychological, social, and economic effects of yaws from the perspective of patients, contacts, and key informants in two areas of the Philippines. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Yaws and contacts were identified through clinicoseroprevalence surveys conducted in the Liguasan Marsh area, Mindanao, Southern Philippines in 2017 and among the Aetas, an indigenous people community in Quezon province, Luzon region in 2020. Skin examinations and serologic tests confirmed the diagnosis of active, latent, or past yaws among the children and adults. Trained health personnel conducted in-depth interviews of those affected by yaws and their guardians, household contacts, and key informants, such as health workers regarding their perceptions, feelings, health-seeking behaviors, and effects of yaws on their lives. RESULTS: A total of 26 participants were interviewed: 17 from Mindanao and 9 from Luzon. Aside from the physical discomforts and embarrassment, yaws was considered stigmatizing in Mindanao, because positive non-treponemal tests or treponemal antibody tests were associated with syphilis and promiscuity. These have led to loss of employment and income opportunities for adults with latent or past yaws. In contrast, the Aetas of Luzon did not perceive yaws as stigmatizing, because it was a common skin problem. Plantar yaws interfered with the Aeta's gold panning livelihood due to the pain of wounds. CONCLUSIONS: Yaws is not merely a chronic skin and bone disease. It can lead to significant psychosocial and economic problems as well. Yaws is a generally forgotten disease in the Philippines. There is no yaws surveillance and control program. Treatments are not readily available for the populations affected, thus perpetuating the infection and negative effects. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY: This is the first study to document the psychosocial and economic effects of yaws among Filipinos. Information campaigns about yaws and a yaws control program are needed to reduce stigma and discrimination.

Yaws in the Philippines: A clinico-seroprevalence study of selected communities in Mindanao.

BACKGROUND: Yaws is a chronic, highly contagious skin and bone infection affecting children living in impoverished, remote communities. It is caused by Treponema pallidum subsp. pertenue. We report the prevalence of active yaws among elementary schoolchildren based on clinical and serological criteria in selected municipalities of Southern Philippines. METHODS: From January to March 2017, exploratory cross-sectional surveys and screening of skin diseases were conducted in the Liguasan Marsh area of the provinces Maguindanao, Sultan Kudarat, and Cotabato. We included 9 municipalities and randomly selected one public elementary school per municipality. Members of students' households and the communities were also examined and treated. Yaws suspects and contacts had blood tests for treponemal and non-treponemal antibodies using Dual Pathway Platform and Treponema pallidum particle agglutination (TPPA) tests. RESULTS: A total of 2779 children and adults were screened for any skin disease: 2291 students, 393 household members, and 95 community members. Among 210 yaws suspects and contacts, 150 consented to serologic tests. The estimated prevalence of active yaws among schoolchildren screened was 1 out of 2291 (0.04%). Among 2532 children who were 14 years old and younger, 4 (0.2%) had active yaws. Eight adult household contacts and community members had latent yaws and 2 had past yaws. Five out of 9 municipalities were endemic for yaws. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirmed that the Philippines is endemic for yaws but at a low level in the schools surveyed. This is an under-estimation due to the limited sampling. The lack of proper disease surveillance after the eradication campaign in the 1960's has made yaws a forgotten disease and has led to its resurgence. Yaws surveillance is needed to determine the extent of yaws in the Philippines and to help develop a strategy to eradicate yaws by 2030.

Providing antibiotics to immigrants: a qualitative study of general practitioners' and pharmacists' experiences.

BACKGROUND: If healthcare professionals perceive that patients strongly expect to be prescribed antibiotics, inappropriate prescriptions may result. As it is unknown whether this happens more often with certain patient groups, we explored whether general practitioners (GPs) and pharmacists perceived such expectations when they provided antibiotics to immigrant patients. METHODS: Ten GPs and five pharmacists from Rotterdam, the Netherlands, were interviewed on the basis of a semi-structured topic guide. Atlas.ti software was then used to conduct a thematic analysis. RESULTS: GPs felt that immigrant patients, especially those who had arrived recently, were more likely to expect to receive antibiotics than native Dutch patients. However, these expectations had decreased over the last years and did not always lead immigrants to exert pressure on them. Except for language barriers, the factors reported by GPs to influence their antibiotic prescribing behaviour were unrelated to patients' immigrant background. If there was a language barrier, GPs experienced greater diagnostic uncertainty and needed additional time to obtain and communicate correct information. To overcome language barriers, they often used point-of-care testing to convince patients that antibiotics were unnecessary. Although pharmacists rarely experienced problems dispensing antibiotics to immigrants, they and GPs both struggled to find effective ways of overcoming language barriers, and stressed the need for multi-language support materials. CONCLUSION: While pharmacists rarely experience any problems providing antibiotics to immigrants, GPs regularly face language barriers with immigrant patients, which complicate the diagnostic process and communicating information in the limited available time. This sometimes leads antibiotics to be prescribed inappropriately.

A sharp decrease in reported non-COVID-19 notifiable infectious diseases during the first wave of the COVID-19 epidemic in the Rotterdam region, the Netherlands: a descriptive study.

BACKGROUND: The Public Health Services in the Rotterdam region, the Netherlands, observed a substantial decrease of non-COVID-19 notifiable infectious diseases and institutional outbreaks during the first wave of the COVID-19 epidemic. We describe this change from mid-March to mid-October 2020 by comparing with the pre-COVID-19 situation. METHODS: All cases of notifiable diseases and institutional outbreaks reported to the Public Health Services Rotterdam-Rijnmond between 1st January and mid-October 2020 were included. Seven-day moving averages and cumulative cases were plotted against time and compared to those of 2017-2019. Additionally, Google mobility transit data of the region were plotted, as proxy for social distancing. RESULTS: Respiratory, gastrointestinal, and travel-related notifiable diseases were reported 65% less often during the first wave of the COVID-19 epidemic than in the same weeks in 2017-2019. Reports of institutional outbreaks were also lower after the initially imposed social distancing measures; however, the numbers rebounded when measures were partially lifted. CONCLUSIONS: Interpersonal distancing and hygiene measures imposed nationally against COVID-19 were in place between mid-March and mid-October, which most likely reduced transmission of other infectious diseases, and may thus have resulted in lower notifications of infectious diseases and outbreaks. This phenomenon opens future study options considering the effect of local outbreak control measures on a wide range of non-COVID-19 diseases. Targeted, tailored, appropriate and acceptable hygiene and distancing measures, specifically for vulnerable groups and institutions, should be devised and their effect investigated.

Strategies to promote the use of online health applications for early detection and raising awareness of chronic diseases among members of the general public: A systematic literature review.

INTRODUCTION: Engagement is essential to achieve intended outcomes of online interventions, but achieving such engagement is a key challenge for many researchers and practitioners. This systematic literature review aims to identify strategies and tools to promote the use of online health interventions for early detection and raising awareness of chronic diseases among the public, and to investigate the evidence regarding the effectiveness of such strategies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed a systematic search of seven electronic databases: Embase, Medline All Ovid, Web of Science, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, PsycINFO, CINAHL and Google Scholar. The study protocol is registered in PROSPERO (CRD42020200471). RESULTS: The database search identified 8,526 articles, 47 were included in the review. Thirty-two studies reported strategies to promote the use of their online intervention, including online advertisements on social media (n = 17), a dating application (n = 10), and a website (n = 3). Social media were not only used for promotion of the intervention, but also as main intervention platform (n = 18). Seven studies reported traditional promotion methods such as printed advertisement and (offline) campaigns. Twenty-seven studies reported strategies to keep users engaged, including reminders (n = 12), sharing of posts on social media (n = 4), rewards (n = 3), weekly group discussions (n = 2), follow-up phone calls (n = 2), interactive games (n = 1), monthly quizzes (n = 1), links to provision of a test kit (n = 1), and a deposit-return system (n = 1). CONCLUSIONS: No study conducted a formal evaluation of the effectiveness of the engagement strategies. Examining the effectiveness of engagement strategies is an important area for further research.