Forelimb movements contribute to hindlimb cutaneous reflexes during locomotion in cats.

During quadrupedal locomotion, interactions between spinal and supraspinal circuits and somatosensory feedback coordinate forelimb and hindlimb movements. How this is achieved is not clear. To determine whether forelimb movements modulate hindlimb cutaneous reflexes involved in responding to an external perturbation, we stimulated the superficial peroneal nerve in six intact cats during quadrupedal locomotion and during hindlimb-only locomotion (with forelimbs standing on stationary platform) and in two cats with a low spinal transection (T12-T13) during hindlimb-only locomotion. We compared cutaneous reflexes evoked in six ipsilateral and four contralateral hindlimb muscles. Results showed similar occurrence and phase-dependent modulation of short-latency inhibitory and excitatory responses during quadrupedal and hindlimb-only locomotion in intact cats. However, the depth of modulation was reduced in the ipsilateral semitendinosus during hindlimb-only locomotion. Additionally, longer-latency responses occurred less frequently in extensor muscles bilaterally during hindlimb-only locomotion, whereas short-latency inhibitory and longer-latency excitatory responses occurred more frequently in the ipsilateral and contralateral sartorius anterior, respectively. After spinal transection, short-latency inhibitory and excitatory responses were similar to both intact conditions, whereas mid- or longer-latency excitatory responses were reduced or abolished. Our results in intact cats and the comparison with spinal-transected cats suggest that the absence of forelimb movements suppresses inputs from supraspinal structures and/or cervical cord that normally contribute to longer-latency reflex responses in hindlimb extensor muscles.NEW & NOTEWORTHY During quadrupedal locomotion, the coordination of forelimb and hindlimb movements involves central circuits and somatosensory feedback. To demonstrate how forelimb movement affects hindlimb cutaneous reflexes during locomotion, we stimulated the superficial peroneal nerve in intact cats during quadrupedal and hindlimb-only locomotion as well as in spinal-transected cats during hindlimb-only locomotion. We show that forelimb movement influences the modulation of hindlimb cutaneous reflexes, particularly the occurrence of long-latency reflex responses.

Changes in intra- and interlimb reflexes from forelimb cutaneous afferents after staggered thoracic lateral hemisections during locomotion in cats.

In quadrupeds, such as cats, cutaneous afferents from the forepaw dorsum signal external perturbations and send signals to spinal circuits to coordinate the activity in muscles of all four limbs. How these cutaneous reflex pathways from forelimb afferents are reorganized after an incomplete spinal cord injury is not clear. Using a staggered thoracic lateral hemisections paradigm, we investigated changes in intralimb and interlimb reflex pathways by electrically stimulating the left and right superficial radial nerves in seven adult cats and recording reflex responses in five forelimb and ten hindlimb muscles. After the first (right T5-T6) and second (left T10-T11) hemisections, forelimb-hindlimb coordination was altered and weakened. After the second hemisection, cats required balance assistance to perform quadrupedal locomotion. Short-, mid- and long-latency homonymous and crossed reflex responses in forelimb muscles and their phase modulation remained largely unaffected after staggered hemisections. The occurrence of homolateral and diagonal mid- and long-latency responses in hindlimb muscles evoked with left and right superficial radial nerve stimulation was significantly reduced at the first time point after the first hemisection, but partially recovered at the second time point with left superficial radial nerve stimulation. These responses were lost or reduced after the second hemisection. When present, all reflex responses, including homolateral and diagonal, maintained their phase-dependent modulation. Therefore, our results show a considerable loss in cutaneous reflex transmission from cervical to lumbar levels after incomplete spinal cord injury, albeit with preservation of phase modulation, likely affecting functional responses to external perturbations.

Operation regimes of spinal circuits controlling locomotion and role of supraspinal drives and sensory feedback.

Locomotion in mammals is directly controlled by the spinal neuronal network, operating under the control of supraspinal signals and somatosensory feedback that interact with each other. However, the functional architecture of the spinal locomotor network, its operation regimes, and the role of supraspinal and sensory feedback in different locomotor behaviors, including at different speeds, remain unclear. We developed a computational model of spinal locomotor circuits receiving supraspinal drives and limb sensory feedback that could reproduce multiple experimental data obtained in intact and spinal-transected cats during tied-belt and split-belt treadmill locomotion. We provide evidence that the spinal locomotor network operates in different regimes depending on locomotor speed. In an intact system, at slow speeds (< 0.4 m/s), the spinal network operates in a non-oscillating state-machine regime and requires sensory feedback or external inputs for phase transitions. Removing sensory feedback related to limb extension prevents locomotor oscillations at slow speeds. With increasing speed and supraspinal drives, the spinal network switches to a flexor-driven oscillatory regime and then to a classical half-center regime. Following spinal transection, the spinal network can only operate in the state-machine regime. Our results suggest that the spinal network operates in different regimes for slow exploratory and fast escape locomotor behaviors, making use of different control mechanisms.

Changes in intra- and interlimb reflexes from hindlimb cutaneous afferents after staggered thoracic lateral hemisections during locomotion in cats.

When the foot dorsum contacts an obstacle during locomotion, cutaneous afferents signal central circuits to coordinate muscle activity in the four limbs. Spinal cord injury disrupts these interactions, impairing balance and interlimb coordination. We evoked cutaneous reflexes by electrically stimulating left and right superficial peroneal nerves before and after two thoracic lateral hemisections placed on opposite sides of the cord at 9- to 13-week interval in seven adult cats (4 males and 3 females). We recorded reflex responses in ten hindlimb and five forelimb muscles bilaterally. After the first (right T5-T6) and second (left T10-T11) hemisections, coordination of the fore- and hindlimbs was altered and/or became less consistent. After the second hemisection, cats required balance assistance to perform quadrupedal locomotion. Short-latency reflex responses in homonymous and crossed hindlimb muscles largely remained unaffected after staggered hemisections. However, mid- and long-latency homonymous and crossed responses in both hindlimbs occurred less frequently after staggered hemisections. In forelimb muscles, homolateral and diagonal mid- and long-latency response occurrence significantly decreased after the first and second hemisections. In all four limbs, however, when present, short-, mid- and long-latency responses maintained their phase-dependent modulation. We also observed reduced durations of short-latency inhibitory homonymous responses in left hindlimb extensors early after the first hemisection and delayed short-latency responses in the right ipsilesional hindlimb after the first hemisection. Therefore, changes in cutaneous reflex responses correlated with impaired balance/stability and interlimb coordination during locomotion after spinal cord injury. Restoring reflex transmission could be used as a biomarker to facilitate locomotor recovery. KEY POINTS: Cutaneous afferent inputs coordinate muscle activity in the four limbs during locomotion when the foot dorsum contacts an obstacle. Thoracic spinal cord injury disrupts communication between spinal locomotor centres located at cervical and lumbar levels, impairing balance and limb coordination. We investigated cutaneous reflexes during quadrupedal locomotion by electrically stimulating the superficial peroneal nerve bilaterally, before and after staggered lateral thoracic hemisections of the spinal cord in cats. We showed a loss/reduction of mid- and long-latency responses in all four limbs after staggered hemisections, which correlated with altered coordination of the fore- and hindlimbs and impaired balance. Targeting cutaneous reflex pathways projecting to the four limbs could help develop therapeutic approaches aimed at restoring transmission in ascending and descending spinal pathways.

Sensory Feedback and Central Neuronal Interactions in Mouse Locomotion.

Locomotion is a complex process involving specific interactions between the central neural controller and the mechanical components of the system. The basic rhythmic activity generated by locomotor circuits in the spinal cord defines rhythmic limb movements and their central coordination. The operation of these circuits is modulated by sensory feedback from the limbs providing information about the state of the limbs and the body. However, the specific role and contribution of central interactions and sensory feedback in the control of locomotor gait and posture remain poorly understood. We use biomechanical data on quadrupedal locomotion in mice and recent findings on the organization of neural interactions within the spinal locomotor circuitry to create and analyze a tractable mathematical model of mouse locomotion. The model includes a simplified mechanical model of the mouse body with four limbs and a central controller composed of four rhythm generators, each operating as a state machine controlling the state of one limb. Feedback signals characterize the load and extension of each limb as well as postural stability (balance). We systematically investigate and compare several model versions and compare their behavior to existing experimental data on mouse locomotion. Our results highlight the specific roles of sensory feedback and some central propriospinal interactions between circuits controlling fore and hind limbs for speed-dependent gait expression. Our models suggest that postural imbalance feedback may be critically involved in the control of swing-to-stance transitions in each limb and the stabilization of walking direction.

Spinal control of locomotion before and after spinal cord injury.

Thoracic spinal cord injury affects long propriospinal neurons that interconnect the cervical and lumbar enlargements. These neurons are crucial for coordinating forelimb and hindlimb locomotor movements in a speed-dependent manner. However, recovery from spinal cord injury is usually studied over a very limited range of speeds that may not fully expose circuitry dysfunction. To overcome this limitation, we investigated overground locomotion in rats trained to move over an extended distance with a wide range of speeds both pre-injury and after recovery from thoracic hemisection or contusion injuries. In this experimental context, intact rats expressed a speed-dependent continuum of alternating (walk and trot) and non-alternating (canter, gallop, half-bound gallop, and bound) gaits. After a lateral hemisection injury, rats recovered the ability to locomote over a wide range of speeds but lost the ability to use the highest-speed gaits (half-bound gallop and bound) and predominantly used the limb contralateral to the injury as lead during canter and gallop. A moderate contusion injury caused a greater reduction in maximal speed, loss of all non-alternating gaits, and emergence of novel alternating gaits. These changes resulted from weak fore-hind coupling together with appropriate control of left-right alternation. After hemisection, animals expressed a subset of intact gaits with appropriate interlimb coordination even on the side of the injury, where the long propriospinal connections were severed. These observations highlight how investigating locomotion over the full range of speeds can reveal otherwise hidden aspects of spinal locomotor control and post-injury recovery.

Spinal Sensorimotor Circuits Play a Prominent Role in Hindlimb Locomotor Recovery after Staggered Thoracic Lateral Hemisections but Cannot Restore Posture and Interlimb Coordination during Quadrupedal Locomotion in Adult Cats.

Spinal sensorimotor circuits interact with supraspinal and peripheral inputs to generate quadrupedal locomotion. Ascending and descending spinal pathways ensure coordination between the forelimbs and hindlimbs. Spinal cord injury (SCI) disrupts these pathways. To investigate the control of interlimb coordination and hindlimb locomotor recovery, we performed two lateral thoracic hemisections on opposite sides of the cord (right T5-T6 and left T10-T11) at an interval of approximately two months in eight adult cats. In three cats, the spinal cord was transected at T12-T13. We collected electromyography (EMG) and kinematic data during quadrupedal and hindlimb-only locomotion before and after spinal lesions. We show that (1) cats spontaneously recover quadrupedal locomotion following staggered hemisections but require balance assistance after the second one, (2) coordination between the forelimbs and hindlimbs displays 2:1 patterns (two cycles of one forelimb within one hindlimb cycle) and becomes weaker and more variable after both hemisections, (3) left-right asymmetries in hindlimb stance and swing durations appear after the first hemisection and reverse after the second, and (4) support periods reorganize after staggered hemisections to favor support involving both forelimbs and diagonal limbs. Cats expressed hindlimb locomotion the day following spinal transection, indicating that lumbar sensorimotor circuits play a prominent role in hindlimb locomotor recovery after staggered hemisections. These results reflect a series of changes in spinal sensorimotor circuits that allow cats to maintain and recover some level of quadrupedal locomotor functionality with diminished motor commands from the brain and cervical cord, although the control of posture and interlimb coordination remains impaired.

A sensory signal related to left-right symmetry modulates intra- and interlimb cutaneous reflexes during locomotion in intact cats.

Introduction: During locomotion, cutaneous reflexes play an essential role in rapidly responding to an external perturbation, for example, to prevent a fall when the foot contacts an obstacle. In cats and humans, cutaneous reflexes involve all four limbs and are task- and phase modulated to generate functionally appropriate whole-body responses. Methods: To assess task-dependent modulation of cutaneous interlimb reflexes, we electrically stimulated the superficial radial or superficial peroneal nerves in adult cats and recorded muscle activity in the four limbs during tied-belt (equal left-right speeds) and split-belt (different left-right speeds) locomotion. Results: We show that the pattern of intra- and interlimb cutaneous reflexes in fore- and hindlimbs muscles and their phase-dependent modulation were conserved during tied-belt and split-belt locomotion. Short-latency cutaneous reflex responses to muscles of the stimulated limb were more likely to be evoked and phase-modulated when compared to muscles in the other limbs. In some muscles, the degree of reflex modulation was significantly reduced during split-belt locomotion compared to tied-belt conditions. Split-belt locomotion increased the step-by-step variability of left-right symmetry, particularly spatially. Discussion: These results suggest that sensory signals related to left-right symmetry reduce cutaneous reflex modulation, potentially to avoid destabilizing an unstable pattern.

Spinal sensorimotor circuits play a prominent role in hindlimb locomotor recovery after staggered thoracic lateral hemisections but cannot restore posture and interlimb coordination during quadrupedal locomotion in adult cats.

Spinal sensorimotor circuits interact with supraspinal and peripheral inputs to generate quadrupedal locomotion. Ascending and descending spinal pathways ensure coordination between the fore-and hindlimbs. Spinal cord injury disrupts these pathways. To investigate the control of interlimb coordination and hindlimb locomotor recovery, we performed two lateral thoracic hemisections placed on opposite sides of the cord (right T5-T6 and left T10-T11) at an interval of approximately two months in eight adult cats. In three cats, we then made a complete spinal transection caudal to the second hemisection at T12-T13. We collected electromyography and kinematic data during quadrupedal and hindlimb-only locomotion before and after spinal lesions. We show that 1) cats spontaneously recover quadrupedal locomotion following staggered hemisections but require balance assistance after the second one, 2) coordination between the fore-and hindlimbs displays 2:1 patterns and becomes weaker and more variable after both hemisections, 3) left-right asymmetries in hindlimb stance and swing durations appear after the first hemisection and reverse after the second, and 4) support periods reorganize after staggered hemisections to favor support involving both forelimbs and diagonal limbs. Cats expressed hindlimb locomotion the day following spinal transection, indicating that lumbar sensorimotor circuits play a prominent role in hindlimb locomotor recovery after staggered hemisections. These results reflect a series of changes in spinal sensorimotor circuits that allow cats to maintain and recover some level of quadrupedal locomotor functionality with diminished motor commands from the brain and cervical cord, although the control of posture and interlimb coordination remains impaired. Significance Statement: Coordinating the limbs during locomotion depends on pathways in the spinal cord. We used a spinal cord injury model that disrupts communication between the brain and spinal cord by sectioning half of the spinal cord on one side and then about two months later, half the spinal cord on the other side at different levels of the thoracic cord in cats. We show that despite a strong contribution from neural circuits located below the second spinal cord injury in the recovery of hindlimb locomotion, the coordination between the forelimbs and hindlimbs weakens and postural control is impaired. We can use our model to test approaches to restore the control of interlimb coordination and posture during locomotion after spinal cord injury.

Spinal control of locomotion before and after spinal cord injury.

Thoracic spinal cord injury affects long propriospinal neurons that interconnect the cervical and lumbar enlargements. These neurons are crucial for coordinating forelimb and hindlimb locomotor movements in a speed-dependent manner. However, recovery from spinal cord injury is usually studied over a very limited range of speeds that may not fully expose circuitry dysfunction. To overcome this limitation, we investigated overground locomotion in rats trained to move over an extended distance with a wide range of speeds both pre-injury and after recovery from thoracic hemisection or contusion injuries. In this experimental context, intact rats expressed a speed-dependent continuum of alternating (walk and trot) and non-alternating (canter, gallop, half-bound gallop, and bound) gaits. After a lateral hemisection injury, rats recovered the ability to locomote over a wide range of speeds but lost the ability to use the highest-speed gaits (half-bound gallop and bound) and predominantly used the limb contralateral to the injury as lead during canter and gallop. A moderate contusion injury caused a greater reduction in maximal speed, loss of all non-alternating gaits, and emergence of novel alternating gaits. These changes resulted from weak fore-hind coupling together with appropriate control of left-right alternation. After hemisection, animals expressed a subset of intact gaits with appropriate interlimb coordination even on the side of the injury, where the long propriospinal connections were severed. These observations highlight how investigating locomotion over the full range of speeds can reveal otherwise hidden aspects of spinal locomotor control and post-injury recovery.

Changes in intra- and interlimb reflexes from hindlimb cutaneous afferents after staggered thoracic lateral hemisections during locomotion in cats.

When the foot dorsum contacts an obstacle during locomotion, cutaneous afferents signal central circuits to coordinate muscle activity in the four limbs. Spinal cord injury disrupts these interactions, impairing balance and interlimb coordination. We evoked cutaneous reflexes by electrically stimulating left and right superficial peroneal nerves before and after two thoracic lateral hemisections placed on opposite sides of the cord at 9-13 weeks interval in seven adult cats (4 males and 3 females). We recorded reflex responses in ten hindlimb and five forelimb muscles bilaterally. After the first (right T5-T6) and second (left T10-T11) hemisections, coordination of the fore- and hindlimbs was altered and/or became less consistent. After the second hemisection, cats required balance assistance to perform quadrupedal locomotion. Short-latency reflex responses in homonymous and crossed hindlimb muscles largely remained unaffected after staggered hemisections. However, mid- and long-latency homonymous and crossed responses in both hindlimbs occurred less frequently after staggered hemisections. In forelimb muscles, homolateral and diagonal mid- and long-latency response occurrence significantly decreased after the first and second hemisections. In all four limbs, however, when present, short-, mid- and long-latency responses maintained their phase-dependent modulation. We also observed reduced durations of short-latency inhibitory homonymous responses in left hindlimb extensors early after the first hemisection and delayed short-latency responses in the right ipsilesional hindlimb after the first hemisection. Therefore, changes in cutaneous reflex responses correlated with impaired balance/stability and interlimb coordination during locomotion after spinal cord injury. Restoring reflex transmission could be used as a biomarker to facilitate locomotor recovery.

Modulation of the gait pattern during split-belt locomotion after lateral spinal cord hemisection in adult cats.

Most previous studies investigated the recovery of locomotion in animals and people with incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI) during relatively simple tasks (e.g., walking in a straight line on a horizontal surface or a treadmill). We know less about the recovery of locomotion after incomplete SCI in left-right asymmetric conditions, such as turning or stepping along circular trajectories. To investigate this, we collected kinematic and electromyography data during split-belt locomotion at different left-right speed differences before and after a right thoracic lateral spinal cord hemisection in nine adult cats. After hemisection, although cats still performed split-belt locomotion, we observed several changes in the gait pattern compared with the intact state at early (1-2 wk) and late (7-8 wk) time points. Cats with larger lesions showed new coordination patterns between the fore- and hindlimbs, with the forelimbs taking more steps. Despite this change in fore-hind coordination, cats maintained consistent phasing between the fore- and hindlimbs. Adjustments in cycle and phase (stance and swing) durations between the slow and fast sides allowed animals to maintain 1:1 left-right coordination. Periods of triple support involving the right (ipsilesional) hindlimb decreased in favor of quad support and triple support involving the other limbs. Step and stride lengths decreased with concurrent changes in the right fore- and hindlimbs, possibly to avoid interference. The above adjustments in the gait pattern allowed cats to retain the ability to locomote in asymmetric conditions after incomplete SCI. We discuss potential plastic neuromechanical mechanisms involved in locomotor recovery in these conditions.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Everyday locomotion often involves left-right asymmetries, when turning, walking along circular paths, stepping on uneven terrains, etc. To show how incomplete spinal cord injury affects locomotor control in asymmetric conditions, we collected data before and after a thoracic lateral spinal hemisection on a split-belt treadmill with one side stepping faster than the other. We show that adjustments in kinematics and muscle activity allowed cats to retain the ability to perform asymmetric locomotion after hemisection.

Ipsilateral and Contralateral Interactions in Spinal Locomotor Circuits Mediated by V1 Neurons: Insights from Computational Modeling.

We describe and analyze a computational model of neural circuits in the mammalian spinal cord responsible for generating and shaping locomotor-like oscillations. The model represents interacting populations of spinal neurons, including the neurons that were genetically identified and characterized in a series of previous experimental studies. Here, we specifically focus on the ipsilaterally projecting V1 interneurons, their possible role in the spinal locomotor circuitry, and their involvement in the generation of locomotor oscillations. The proposed connections of these neurons and their involvement in different neuronal pathways in the spinal cord allow the model to reproduce the results of optogenetic manipulations of these neurons under different experimental conditions. We suggest the existence of two distinct populations of V1 interneurons mediating different ipsilateral and contralateral interactions within the spinal cord. The model proposes explanations for multiple experimental data concerning the effects of optogenetic silencing and activation of V1 interneurons on the frequency of locomotor oscillations in the intact cord and hemicord under different experimental conditions. Our simulations provide an important insight into the organization of locomotor circuitry in the mammalian spinal cord.

Contribution of Afferent Feedback to Adaptive Hindlimb Walking in Cats: A Neuromusculoskeletal Modeling Study.

Mammalian locomotion is generated by central pattern generators (CPGs) in the spinal cord, which produce alternating flexor and extensor activities controlling the locomotor movements of each limb. Afferent feedback signals from the limbs are integrated by the CPGs to provide adaptive control of locomotion. Responses of CPG-generated neural activity to afferent feedback stimulation have been previously studied during fictive locomotion in immobilized cats. Yet, locomotion in awake, behaving animals involves dynamic interactions between central neuronal circuits, afferent feedback, musculoskeletal system, and environment. To study these complex interactions, we developed a model simulating interactions between a half-center CPG and the musculoskeletal system of a cat hindlimb. Then, we analyzed the role of afferent feedback in the locomotor adaptation from a dynamic viewpoint using the methods of dynamical systems theory and nullcline analysis. Our model reproduced limb movements during regular cat walking as well as adaptive changes of these movements when the foot steps into a hole. The model generates important insights into the mechanism for adaptive locomotion resulting from dynamic interactions between the CPG-based neural circuits, the musculoskeletal system, and the environment.

The role of V3 neurons in speed-dependent interlimb coordination during locomotion in mice.

Speed-dependent interlimb coordination allows animals to maintain stable locomotion under different circumstances. The V3 neurons are known to be involved in interlimb coordination. We previously modeled the locomotor spinal circuitry controlling interlimb coordination (Danner et al., 2017). This model included the local V3 neurons that mediate mutual excitation between left and right rhythm generators (RGs). Here, our focus was on V3 neurons involved in ascending long propriospinal interactions (aLPNs). Using retrograde tracing, we revealed a subpopulation of lumbar V3 aLPNs with contralateral cervical projections. V3OFF mice, in which all V3 neurons were silenced, had a significantly reduced maximal locomotor speed, were unable to move using stable trot, gallop, or bound, and predominantly used a lateral-sequence walk. To reproduce this data and understand the functional roles of V3 aLPNs, we extended our previous model by incorporating diagonal V3 aLPNs mediating inputs from each lumbar RG to the contralateral cervical RG. The extended model reproduces our experimental results and suggests that locally projecting V3 neurons, mediating left-right interactions within lumbar and cervical cords, promote left-right synchronization necessary for gallop and bound, whereas the V3 aLPNs promote synchronization between diagonal fore and hind RGs necessary for trot. The model proposes the organization of spinal circuits available for future experimental testing.

Control of Forelimb and Hindlimb Movements and Their Coordination during Quadrupedal Locomotion across Speeds in Adult Spinal Cats.

Coordinating the four limbs is critical for terrestrial mammalian locomotion. Thoracic spinal transection abolishes neural communication between the brain and spinal networks controlling hindlimb/leg movements. Several studies have shown that animal models of spinal transection (spinalization), such as mice, rats, cats, and dogs recover hindlimb locomotion with the forelimbs stationary or suspended. We know less on the ability to generate quadrupedal locomotion after spinal transection, however. We collected kinematic and electromyography data in four adult cats during quadrupedal locomotion at five treadmill speeds before (intact cats) and after low-thoracic spinal transection (spinal cats). We show that adult spinal cats performed quadrupedal treadmill locomotion and modulated their speed from 0.4 m/sec to 0.8 m/sec but required perineal stimulation. During quadrupedal locomotion, several compensatory strategies occurred, such as postural adjustments of the head and neck and the appearance of new coordination patterns between the forelimbs and hindlimbs, where the hindlimbs took more steps than the forelimbs. We also observed temporal changes, such as shorter forelimb cycle/swing durations and shorter hindlimb cycle/stance durations in the spinal state. Forelimb double support periods occupied a greater proportion of the cycle in the spinal state, and hindlimb stride length was shorter. Coordination between the forelimbs and hindlimbs was weakened and more variable in the spinal state. Changes in muscle activity reflected spatiotemporal changes in the locomotor pattern. Despite important changes in the pattern, our results indicate that biomechanical properties of the musculoskeletal system play an important role in quadrupedal locomotion and offset some of the loss in neural communication between networks controlling the forelimbs and hindlimbs after spinal transection.

State- and Condition-Dependent Modulation of the Hindlimb Locomotor Pattern in Intact and Spinal Cats Across Speeds.

Locomotion after complete spinal cord injury (spinal transection) in animal models is usually evaluated in a hindlimb-only condition with the forelimbs suspended or placed on a stationary platform and compared with quadrupedal locomotion in the intact state. However, because of the quadrupedal nature of movement in these animals, the forelimbs play an important role in modulating the hindlimb pattern. This raises the question: whether changes in the hindlimb pattern after spinal transection are due to the state of the system (intact versus spinal) or because the locomotion is hindlimb-only. We collected kinematic and electromyographic data during locomotion at seven treadmill speeds before and after spinal transection in nine adult cats during quadrupedal and hindlimb-only locomotion in the intact state and hindlimb-only locomotion in the spinal state. We attribute some changes in the hindlimb pattern to the spinal state, such as convergence in stance and swing durations at high speed, improper coordination of ankle and hip joints, a switch in the timing of knee flexor and hip flexor bursts, modulation of burst durations with speed, and incidence of bi-phasic bursts in some muscles. Alternatively, some changes relate to the hindlimb-only nature of the locomotion, such as paw placement relative to the hip at contact, magnitude of knee and ankle yield, burst durations of some muscles and their timing. Overall, we show greater similarity in spatiotemporal and EMG variables between the two hindlimb-only conditions, suggesting that the more appropriate pre-spinal control is hindlimb-only rather than quadrupedal locomotion.

Sensory Perturbations from Hindlimb Cutaneous Afferents Generate Coordinated Functional Responses in All Four Limbs during Locomotion in Intact Cats.

Coordinating the four limbs is an important feature of terrestrial mammalian locomotion. When the foot dorsum contacts an obstacle, cutaneous mechanoreceptors send afferent signals to the spinal cord to elicit coordinated reflex responses in the four limbs to ensure dynamic balance and forward progression. To determine how the locomotor pattern of all four limbs changes in response to a sensory perturbation evoked by activating cutaneous afferents from one hindlimb, we electrically stimulated the superficial peroneal (SP) nerve with a relatively long train at four different phases (mid-stance, stance-to-swing transition, mid-swing, and swing-to-stance transition) of the hindlimb cycle in seven adult cats. The largest functional effects of the stimulation were found at mid-swing and at the stance-to-swing transition with several changes in the ipsilateral hindlimb, such as increased activity in muscles that flex the knee and hip joints, increased joint flexion and toe height, increased stride/step lengths and increased swing duration. We also observed several changes in support periods to shift support from the stimulated hindlimb to the other three limbs. The same stimulation applied at mid-stance and the swing-to-stance transition produced more subtle changes in the pattern. We observed no changes in stride and step lengths in the ipsilateral hindlimb with stimulation in these phases. We did observe some slightly greater flexions at the knee and ankle joints with stimulation at mid-stance and a reduction in double support periods and increase in triple support. Our results show that correcting or preventing stumbling involves functional contributions from all four limbs.

A Whole-Body Musculoskeletal Model of the Mouse.

Neural control of movement cannot be fully understood without careful consideration of interactions between the neural and biomechanical components. Recent advancements in mouse molecular genetics allow for the identification and manipulation of constituent elements underlying the neural control of movement. To complement experimental studies and investigate the mechanisms by which the neural circuitry interacts with the body and the environment, computational studies modeling motor behaviors in mice need to incorporate a model of the mouse musculoskeletal system. Here, we present the first fully articulated musculoskeletal model of the mouse. The mouse skeletal system has been developed from anatomical references and includes the sets of bones in all body compartments, including four limbs, spine, head and tail. Joints between all bones allow for simulation of full 3D mouse kinematics and kinetics. Hindlimb and forelimb musculature has been implemented using Hill-type muscle models. We analyzed the mouse whole-body model and described the moment-arms for different hindlimb and forelimb muscles, the moments applied by these muscles on the joints, and their involvement in limb movements at different limb/body configurations. The model represents a necessary step for the subsequent development of a comprehensive neuro-biomechanical model of freely behaving mice; this will close the loop between the neural control and the physical interactions between the body and the environment.

On the Organization of the Locomotor CPG: Insights From Split-Belt Locomotion and Mathematical Modeling.

Rhythmic limb movements during locomotion are controlled by central pattern generator (CPG) circuits located in the spinal cord. It is considered that these circuits are composed of individual rhythm generators (RGs) for each limb interacting with each other through multiple commissural and long propriospinal circuits. The organization and operation of each RG are not fully understood, and different competing theories exist about interactions between its flexor and extensor components, as well as about left-right commissural interactions between the RGs. The central idea of circuit organization proposed in this study is that with an increase of excitatory input to each RG (or an increase in locomotor speed) the rhythmogenic mechanism of the RGs changes from "flexor-driven" rhythmicity to a "classical half-center" mechanism. We test this hypothesis using our experimental data on changes in duration of stance and swing phases in the intact and spinal cats walking on the ground or tied-belt treadmills (symmetric conditions) or split-belt treadmills with different left and right belt speeds (asymmetric conditions). We compare these experimental data with the results of mathematical modeling, in which simulated CPG circuits operate in similar symmetric and asymmetric conditions with matching or differing control drives to the left and right RGs. The obtained results support the proposed concept of state-dependent changes in RG operation and specific commissural interactions between the RGs. The performed simulations and mathematical analysis of model operation under different conditions provide new insights into CPG network organization and limb coordination during locomotion.