Limb proportions show developmental plasticity in response to embryo movement.

Animals have evolved limb proportions adapted to different environments, but it is not yet clear to what extent these proportions are directly influenced by the environment during prenatal development. The developing skeleton experiences mechanical loading resulting from embryo movement. We tested the hypothesis that environmentally-induced changes in prenatal movement influence embryonic limb growth to alter proportions. We show that incubation temperature influences motility and limb bone growth in West African Dwarf crocodiles, producing altered limb proportions which may, influence post-hatching performance. Pharmacological immobilisation of embryonic chickens revealed that altered motility, independent of temperature, may underpin this growth regulation. Use of the chick also allowed us to merge histological, immunochemical and cell proliferation labelling studies to evaluate changes in growth plate organisation, and unbiased array profiling to identify specific cellular and transcriptional targets of embryo movement. This disclosed that movement alters limb proportions and regulates chondrocyte proliferation in only specific growth plates. This selective targeting is related to intrinsic mTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin) pathway activity in individual growth plates. Our findings provide new insights into how environmental factors can be integrated to influence cellular activity in growing bones and ultimately gross limb morphology, to generate phenotypic variation during prenatal development.

Genomic variants at the PINK1 locus are associated with transcript abundance and plasma nonesterified fatty acid concentrations in European whites.

The purpose of this study was to characterize associations between PINK1 genotypes, PINK1 transcript levels, and metabolic phenotypes in healthy adults and those with type 2 diabetes (T2D). We measured PINK1 skeletal muscle transcript levels and 8 independent PINK1 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in a cohort of 208 Danish whites and in a cohort of 1701 British whites (SNPs and metabolic phenotypes only). Furthermore, we assessed the effects of PINK1 transcript ablation in primary adipocytes using RNA interference (RNAi). Six PINK1 SNPs were associated with PINK1 transcript levels (P<0.04 to P<0.0001). Obesity modified the association between PINK1 transcript levels and T2D risk (interaction P=0.005); transcript levels were inversely related with T2D in obese (n=105) [odds ratio (OR) per sd increase in expression levels=0.44; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.23, 0.84; P=0.013] but not in nonobese (n=103) (OR=1.20; 95% CI: 0.82, 1.76; P=0.34) individuals. In the British cohort, several PINK1 SNPs were associated with plasma nonesterified fatty acid concentrations. Nominal genotype associations were also observed for fasting glucose, 2-h glucose, and maximal oxygen consumption, although these were not statistically significant after correcting for multiple testing. In primary adipocytes, Pink1 knockdown affected fatty acid binding protein 4 (Fabp4) expression, indicating that PINK1 may influence substrate metabolism. We demonstrate that PINK1 polymorphisms are associated with PINK1 transcript levels and measures of fatty acid metabolism in a concordant manner, whereas our RNAi data imply that PINK1 may indirectly influence lipid metabolism.

Using systems biology to define the essential biological networks responsible for adaptation to endurance exercise training.

We predict that RNA level regulation is as diverse and powerful as protein level regulation when considering physiological adaptation. Non-coding RNA molecules, such as miRNAs (microRNAs), have emerged as a powerful mechanism for post-transcriptional regulation of mRNA. In an effort to define the role of miRNA in human skeletal-muscle biology, we have initiated profiling of muscle RNA before and after endurance exercise training. The robust molecular phenotype of muscle is established using unbiased analysis strategies of the raw data, reflecting the statistical power of gene ontology and network analysis. We can thus determine the structural features of the skeletal-muscle transcriptome, identify discrete networks activated by training and utilize bioinformatics predictions to establish the interaction between non-coding RNA modulation and Affymetrix expression profiles.

Does everything now make (anti)sense?

The data generated by the FANTOM (Functional Annotation of Mouse) consortium, Compugen and Affymetrix have collectively provided evidence that most of the mammalian genomes are actively transcribed. The emergence of an antisense RNA world brings new practical complexities to the study and detection of gene expression. However, we also need to address the fundamental questions regarding the functional importance of these molecules. In this brief paper, we focus on non-coding natural antisense transcription, as it appears to be a potentially powerful mechanism for extending the complexity of the protein coding genome, which is currently unable to explain inter-species diversification.

VEGF-A splice variants and related receptor expression in human skeletal muscle following submaximal exercise.

VEGF-A contributes to muscle tissue angiogenesis following aerobic exercise training. The temporal response of the VEGF-A isoforms and their target receptors has not been comprehensively profiled in human skeletal muscle. We combined submaximal exercise with and without reduced leg blood flow to establish whether ischemia-induced metabolic stress was an important physiological stimuli responsible for regulating the VEGF-A system in humans. Nine healthy men performed two 45-min bouts of one-leg knee-extension exercise, with and without blood flow restriction. Muscle biopsies were obtained at rest and 2 and 6 h after exercise. Expression (mRNA) of the VEGF-A splice variants and related receptors [VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-1, VEGFR-2, and neuropilin-1] was determined by using qPCR. VEGF-A(total) expression increased more robustly after exercise with reduced blood flow, and initially this principally reflected an increase in VEGF-A(165). Six hours after exercise, there was a relatively greater increase in VEGF-A(189), and this response was not influenced by blood flow conditions. VEGFR-1 mRNA expression increased 2 h after exercise, and neuropilin-1 expression was transiently reduced, while all three receptors increased by 6 h. There was no evidence for the expression of the inhibitory VEGF-A(165B) variant in human skeletal muscle. Our study, reflecting both VEGF-A ligand and receptors, implicates metabolic perturbation as a regulator of human muscle angiogenesis and demonstrates that VEGF-A splice variants are distinctly regulated. Our findings also indicate that all three receptor genes exhibit different pretranslational regulation, in response to exercise in humans.

The effect of the beta2-adrenoceptor agonist prodrug BRL-47672 on cardiovascular function, skeletal muscle myosin heavy chain, and MyoD expression in the rat.

The intracellular mechanisms that regulate changes in postnatal myosin heavy chain (MHC) expression are not well established. The major objective of this study was to examine the acute and chronic effects of administration of BRL-47672, the prodrug of the beta2-adrenoceptor agonist clenbuterol on MHC and MyoD transcription factor expression to determine whether or not changes in MHC composition are preceded by changes in MyoD protein expression. To assess to what extent the use of BRL-47672 minimized cardiovascular effects, its hemodynamic actions were compared with those of clenbuterol. The effect of BRL-47672 on heart rate, mean arterial blood pressure, and hindquarters vascular conductance was significantly less than that of clenbuterol after a single i.p. injection (250 microg kg(-1) body mass). In the main study, 4-week old rats were given BRL-47672 (900 microg kg(-1) body mass) or an equivalent volume of saline (control) daily for 1, 28, or 56 days. Soleus muscle (SOL) was excised and MHC and MyoD expression analyzed. After 4 weeks, SOL from the BRL-47672-treated animals had significantly faster MHC composition (49 +/- 2% MHCIIA) compared with those from the control animal (39 +/- 3% MHCIIA, P <0.05). MyoD expression increased by 40% after 1 day of BRL-47672 administration (P <0.05) before a change in MHC composition. In conclusion, these data suggest that increased expression of fast-type MHCIIA expression in rat SOL induced by BRL-47672 administration is preceded by changes in the level of MyoD transcription factor expression.

Metabolic inertia in contracting skeletal muscle: a novel approach for pharmacological intervention in peripheral vascular disease.

Peripheral vascular disease (PVD) is generally accepted to result in the failure of skeletal muscle blood flow to increase adequately at the onset of muscular work. There are currently no routine pharmacological interventions towards the treatment of PVD, however, recent Phase III trials in the USA have demonstrated the clinical potential of the phosphodiesterase III inhibitor Cilostazol for pain-free and maximal walking distances in patients with intermittent claudication. PVD is characterized by a marked reliance on oxygen-independent routes of ATP regeneration (phosphocreatine hydrolysis and glycolysis) in skeletal muscle during contraction and the rapid onset of muscular pain and fatigue. The accumulation of metabolic by-products of oxygen-independent ATP production (hydrogen and lactate ions and inorganic phosphate) has long been associated with an inhibition in contractile function in both healthy volunteers and PVD patients. Therefore, any strategy that could reduce the reliance upon ATP re-synthesis from oxygen-independent routes, and increase the contribution of oxygen-dependent (mitochondrial) ATP re-synthesis, particularly at the onset of exercise, might be expected to improve functional capacity and be of considerable therapeutic value. Historically, the increased contribution of oxygen-independent ATP re-synthesis to total ATP generation at the onset of exercise has been attributed to a lag in muscle blood flow limiting oxygen delivery during this period. However, recent evidence suggests that limited inertia is present at the level of oxygen delivery, whilst considerable inertia exists at the level of mitochondrial enzyme activation and substrate supply. In support of this latter hypothesis, we have reported on a number of occasions that activation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, using pharmacological interventions, can markedly reduce the dependence on ATP re-synthesis from oxygen-independent routes at the onset of muscle contraction. This review will focus on these findings and will highlight the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex as a novel therapeutic target towards the treatment of peripheral vascular disease, or any other disease state where premature muscular fatigue is prevalent due to metabolite accumulation.

An acetyl group deficit limits mitochondrial ATP production at the onset of exercise.

The oxygen deficit at the onset of submaximal exercise represents a period when the energy demand of contraction cannot be met solely by mitochondrial ATP generation, and as a consequence there is an acceleration of ATP re-synthesis from oxygen-independent routes (phosphocreatine hydrolysis and glycolysis). Historically, the origin of the oxygen deficit has been attributed to a lag in muscle blood flow and oxygen availability at the onset of exercise which limits mitochondrial respiration. However, more recent evidence suggests that considerable inertia exists at the level of mitochondrial enzyme activation and substrate supply. In support of this latter hypothesis, we have reported on a number of occasions that pharmacological activation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (and consequent stockpiling of acetyl groups), using dichloroacetate or exercise interventions, can markedly reduce the degree of ATP re-synthesis from oxygen-independent routes during the rest-to-work transition period. This review will focus on these findings, and will offer the hypothesis that acetyl group delivery to the tricarboxylic acid cycle limits mitochondrial flux at the onset of exercise--the so-called acetyl group deficit.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex activation status and acetyl group availability as a site of interchange between anaerobic and oxidative metabolism during intense exercise.

During high intensity muscular contraction ATP is supplied at near maximal rates by PCr degradation and glycolysis. However, as exercise duration increases, the contribution of anaerobic ATP turnover to energy delivery declines due to the depletion of PCr stores and a reduction in the rate of glycogenolysis, which together may be responsible for the parallel reduction in muscle force production and power output. The importance of oxidative phosphorylation to total ATP production during intense muscle contraction has been underestimated to date. Recent studies have, however, demonstrated that the reduction in work production during repeated bouts of maximal exercise is less than the reduction observed in anaerobic energy provision. This observation has been suggested to reflect an increased contribution from oxidative phosphorylation to total energy production; but the mechanism responsible for this increased contribution is poorly understood. Recent evidence has pointed to the activation status of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and/or acetyl group availability as being focal in dictating temporal changes in ADP flux at the onset of intense exercise and, hence, the relative contribution made by anaerobic and oxidative ATP regenerating pathways under these conditions. As might be expected, therefore, maximising the contribution from oxidative ATP regeneration at the onset of exercise (by pharmacologically activating the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex prior to exercise) has been shown to have substantial functional benefits during high intensity contraction. This body of work has also illustrated that, contrary to popular theory, a large proportion of muscle lactate accumulation at the onset of exercise is associated with a lag in the activation of oxidative ATP production rather than with a lag in oxygen delivery.

Regulation of skeletal muscle carbohydrate oxidation during steady-state contraction.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) activation status has been described as being central in the regulation of tissue substrate oxidation as outlined by the glucose fatty-acid cycle. In the present study we examined the effects of reduced lipolysis, with use of nicotinate, and increased PDC activation, with use of dichloroacetate (DCA), on substrate utilization during 20 min of submaximal steady-state contraction (approximately 80% of maximal O2 uptake) in canine gracilis skeletal muscle. At rest, PDC activation was unchanged by nicotinate but was approximately 2.5-fold higher in the DCA group than in the control group (P < 0.05). During contraction, PDC activation status increased to 3.5 mmol acetyl-CoA.min-1.kg-1 at 37 degrees C in the control group, remained at 4.5 mmol acetyl-CoA.min-1.kg-1 at 37 degrees C in the DCA group, but only increased to 2.2 mmol acetyl-CoA.min-1.kg-1 at 37 degrees C in the nicotinate group (P < 0.05). However, the estimated amount of carbohydrate oxidized during the 20-min contraction was similar across groups and did not follow the degree of PDC activation (81.2 +/- 22.9, 95.9 +/- 11.7, and 89.3 +/- 18.9 mmol glucosyl units/kg dry muscle for control, nicotinate, and DCA, respectively). Thus it would appear that, during steady-state contraction, PDC activation status does not determine the rate of carbohydrate oxidation in skeletal muscle.

Muscle acetyl group availability is a major determinant of oxygen deficit in humans during submaximal exercise.

The delay in skeletal muscle mitochondrial ATP production at the onset of exercise is thought to be a function of a limited oxygen supply. The delay, termed the oxygen deficit, can be quantified by assessing the above baseline oxygen consumption during the first few minutes of recovery from exercise. During submaximal exercise, the oxygen deficit is reflected by the extent of muscle phosphocreatine (PCr) breakdown. In the present study, nine male subjects performed 8 min of submaximal, single leg knee extension exercise after saline (Control) and dichloroacetate (DCA) infusion on two separate occasions. Administration of DCA increased resting skeletal muscle pyruvate dehydrogenase complex activation status threefold (Control = 0.4 +/- 0.1 vs. DCA = 1.3 +/- 0.1 mmol acetyl-CoA.min-1.kg wet muscle-1 at 37 degrees C, P < 0.01) and elevated acetylcarnitine concentration fivefold (Control = 2.2 +/- 0.5 vs. DCA = 10.9 +/- 1.2 mmol/kg dry mass, P < 0.01). During exercise, PCr degradation was reduced by approximately 50% after DCA (Control = 33.2 +/- 7.1 vs. DCA = 18.4 +/- 7.1 mmol/kg dry mass, P < 0.05). It would appear, therefore, that in humans acetyl group availability is a major determinant of the rate of increase in mitochondrial respiration at the onset of exercise and hence the oxygen deficit.

Substrate availability limits human skeletal muscle oxidative ATP regeneration at the onset of ischemic exercise.

We have demonstrated previously that dichloroacetate can attenuate skeletal muscle fatigue by up to 35% in a canine model of peripheral ischemia (Timmons, J.A., S.M. Poucher, D. Constantin-Teodosiu, V. Worrall, I.A. Macdonald, and P.L. Greenhaff. 1996. J. Clin. Invest. 97:879-883). This was thought to be a consequence of dichloroacetate increasing acetyl group availability early during contraction. In this study we characterized the metabolic effects of dichloroacetate in a human model of peripheral muscle ischemia. On two separate occasions (control-saline or dichloroacetate infusion), nine subjects performed 8 min of single-leg knee extension exercise at an intensity aimed at achieving volitional exhaustion in approximately 8 min. During exercise each subject's lower limbs were exposed to 50 mmHg of positive pressure, which reduces blood flow by approximately 20%. Dichloroacetate increased resting muscle pyruvate dehydrogenase complex activation status by threefold and elevated acetylcarnitine concentration by fivefold. After 3 min of exercise, phosphocreatine degradation and lactate accumulation were both reduced by approximately 50% after dichloroacetate pretreatment, when compared with control conditions. However, after 8 min of exercise no differences existed between treatments. Therefore, it would appear that dichloroacetate can delay the accumulation of metabolites which lead to the development of skeletal muscle fatigue during ischemia but does not alter the metabolic profile when a maximal effort is approached.

Use of beta-hydroxybutyric acid levels in the emergency department.

UNLABELLED: The impact of a new test on the market, the beta-hydroxybutyric acid (BOH) assay, on clinical decision-making in the emergency department (ED) has not been well studied. In this retrospective analysis, we studied the potential benefit of this new test in the ED decision-making process in diabetic patients. BOH levels were measured on all patients who had glucose and acetone levels ordered by the emergency physician during a 3-month period in the ED of a university tertiary referral center. Two groups were analyzed: group 1 was acetone-positive and BOH-positive (n = 13); group 2 was acetone-negative BOH-positive (n = 31). There was no difference between the two groups in terms of gender (p = 0.55) or age (p = 0. 47). The length of stay (p = 0.97) and number of complications (p = 0.89) were also similar between the two groups. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that in those diabetic patients with a negative acetone test and a positive BOH test, the addition of the positive result on the BOH test may provide additional prognostic information for predicting hospital length of stay and number of in-hospital complications.

Metabolic responses from rest to steady state determine contractile function in ischemic skeletal muscle.

Skeletal muscle contraction during ischemia, such as that experienced by peripheral vascular disease patients, is characterized by rapid fatigue. Using a canine gracilis model, we tested the hypothesis that a critical factor determining force production during ischemia is the metabolic response during the transition from rest to steady state. Dichloroacetate (DCA) administration before gracilis muscle contraction increased pyruvate dehydrogenase complex activation and resulted in acetylation of 80% of the free carnitine pool to acetylcarnitine. After 1 min of contraction, phosphocreatine (PCr) degradation in the DCA group was approximately 50% lower than in the control group (P < 0.05) during conditions of identical force production. After 6 min of contraction, steady-state force production was approximately 30% higher in the DCA group (P < 0.05), and muscle ATP, PCr, and glycogen degradation and lactate accumulation were lower (P < 0.05 in all cases). It appears, therefore, that an important determinant of contractile function during ischemia is the mechanisms by which ATP regeneration occurs during the period of rest to steady-state transition.

Muscle creatine loading in men.

The effect of dietary creatine and supplementation on skeletal muscle creatine accumulation and subsequent degradation and on urinary creatinine excretion was investigated in 31 male subjects who ingested creatine in different quantities over varying time periods. Muscle total creatine concentration increased by approximately 20% after 6 days of creatine supplementation at a rate of 20 g/day. This elevated concentration was maintained when supplementation was continued at a rate of 2 g/day for a further 30 days. In the absence of 2 g/day supplementation, total creatine concentration gradually declined, such that 30 days after the cessation of supplementation the concentration was no different from the presupplementation value. During this period, urinary creatinine excretion was correspondingly increased. A similar, but more gradual, 20% increase in muscle total creatine concentration was observed over a period of 28 days when supplementation was undertaken at a rate of 3 g/day. In conclusion, a rapid way to "creatine load" human skeletal muscle is to ingest 20 g of creatine for 6 days. This elevated tissue concentration can then be maintained by ingestion of 2 g/day thereafter. The ingestion of 3 g creatine/day is in the long term likely to be as effective at raising tissue levels as this higher dose.

Submaximal running economy in run-trained pre-pubertal boys.

There is an increasing tendency for young children to participate in training and competitive running. The impact long-term training has upon stimulating functional physiological adaptation has yet to be fully understood. In this study cardio-respiratory and kinematic differences were assessed at submaximal and maximal exercise intensities in run-trained and non-run-trained boys. Thirty three pre-pubertal boys volunteered to take part in the study. The subjects were in two groups: 15 run-trained subjects [age 11.7 +/- 1.06 yrs, mean +/- SD] and 18 non-run-trained (control) subjects [age 11.3 +/- 0.90 yrs]. Two separate (4 x 3 min) submaximal protocols were used for the trained and non-run-trained groups, with two of the speeds overlapping for comparison purposes. In addition, all boys also performed a maximal oxygen consumption test. Mean VO2max value for the run trained group was 60.5 +/- 3.3 ml/kg/min and for the control group 51.1 +/- 4.3 ml/kg/min, (p < 0.001). No significant differences were found for submaximal running economy at either comparison speed. In addition, no significant (p > 0.05) differences were noted between the groups for any of the kinematic variables at the two comparison speeds. However, selected physiological differences did exist at the submaximal running speeds. The source of the differences that did exist between the two groups may be the result of training, genetic pre-selection or developmental differences between the groups.

Metabolic responses of canine gracilis muscle during contraction with partial ischemia.

The metabolic effects of partial ischemia on canine skeletal muscle were examined during 20 min of isometric contraction. A reduction in blood flow of approximately 75% resulted in an approximate 40% reduction in contractile function. Muscle lactate accumulation and phosphocreatine (PCr) hydrolysis were greater during ischemia, indicating a greater reliance on anaerobic ATP regeneration. Pyruvate dehydrogenase transformation to its active form (PDCa) during contraction was not affected by ischemia, such that PDCa did not appear to be a determinant of skeletal muscle fatigue. Acetylcarnitine concentration was greater during ischemic contraction and inversely correlated with PCr concentration (r = -0.79, P<0.01). Furthermore, acetylcarnitine accumulation and PCr degradation correlated with the degree of skeletal muscle fatigue (r = 0.56, P<0.05 and r = 0.70, P<0.01, respectively). Thus the greater the acetyl group oxidation, the lesser the contribution from anaerobic ATP provision and, subsequently, the smaller the degree of muscle fatigue observed. The metabolic characteristics of this model of ischemic muscle contraction are indistinguishable from the normal metabolic responses observed with increasing contractile intensity.

Increased acetyl group availability enhances contractile function of canine skeletal muscle during ischemia.

Skeletal muscle contractile function is impaired during acute ischemia such as that experienced by peripheral vascular disease patients. We therefore, examined the effects of dichloroacetate, which can alter resting metabolism, on canine gracilis muscle contractile function during constant flow ischemia. Pretreatment with dichloroacetate increased resting pyruvate dehydrogenase complex activity and resting acetylcarnitine concentration by approximately 4- and approximately 10-fold, respectively. After 20-min contraction the control group had demonstrated an approximately 40% reduction in isomeric tension whereas the dichloroacetate group had fatigued by approximately 25% (P < 0.05). Dichloroacetate resulted in less lactate accumulation (10.3 +/- 3.0 vs 58.9 +/- 10.5 mmol.kg-1 dry muscle [dm], P < 0.05) and phosphocreatine hydrolysis (15.6 +/- 6.3 vs 33.8 +/- 9.0 mmol.kg-1 dm, P < 0.05) during contraction. Acetylcarnitine concentration fell during contraction by 5.4 +/- 1.8 mmol.kg-1 dm in the dichloroacetate group but increased by 10.0 +/- 1.9 mmol.kg-1 dm in the control group. In conclusion, dichloroacetate enhanced contractile function during ischemia, independently of blood flow, such that it appears oxidative ATP regeneration is limited by pyruvate dehydrogenase complex activity and acetyl group availability.