First outbreak of Trypanosoma evansi in camels in metropolitan France.

The first outbreak of trypanosomosis caused by Trypanosoma evansi in camels in France was reported on a farm in the Aveyron Department. Five camels were imported from the Canary Islands to the farm in early July 2006, and trypanosomes were observed on a stained blood smear from one of them, which died in October. On further investigations, trypanosomes were observed in the blood of five camels, three of them indigenous to the farm and two that had been imported. On the basis of microscopical examination (morphological criteria and measurements) and serological results based on the card agglutination T evansi test and PCR typing, the parasites were identified as T evansi. After treatment with melarsomine, the infected camels rapidly became negative by parasitological tests and were negative two to four months later by serological tests. The parasite was probably transmitted by tabanids and Stomoxys calcitrans, which were abundant in July to September 2006. No parasites were observed in other animals on the farm or on neighbouring farms, but some of the sheep on these farms were positive by PCR or serology.

The current challenges of dourine: difficulties in differentiating Trypanosoma equiperdum within the subgenus Trypanozoon.

During its 20th annual meeting in Paris in May 1999, the OIE (World organisation for animal health) Ad Hoc Group on Non-Tsetse Transmitted Animal Trypanosomoses expressed the following concerns about dourine: the discrepancies in some of the results of the complement fixation test (CFT), which is the only international diagnostic test officially recognised by the International Organisation for the Transportation of Equidae; the persistence of suspected cases of dourine in some Asian, European and African countries; the impossibility of differentiating Trypanosoma equiperdum from Trypanosoma evansi and of isolating new strains of T. equiperdum from clinical cases that have appeared in various parts of the world since 1982. In the light of these concerns, it was decided, in agreement with the Directorate of the Federal Veterinary Services of Russia in Moscow, to perform comparative trials on the value of CFT/dourine at the OIE Reference Laboratory for dourine in Moscow (The All-Russian Research Institute of Experimental Veterinary Medicine) using reagents (antigens and sera) from seven countries with extensive experience in the field of dourine diagnosis, namely, South Africa, France, Italy, Germany, Russia, the United States of America and the People's Republic of China. It is thanks to the successful co-operation of these countries that the trials were made possible. Results showed an overall concordance and were submitted for consideration to the OIE Biological Standards Commission, the commission which is in charge of the Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals. These trials serve as a starting point for further study, particularly in the following areas: the isolation of new strains of T. equiperdum from clinical dourine cases; the identification of specific markers for T. equiperdum which would make it possible to differentiate it from among the other species within the subgenus Trypanozoon; the experimental infection of horses with newly isolated T. equiperdum strains to compare their pathogenicity with those currently used in national diagnostic laboratories and with that of T. evansi; phylogenetic studies; the proposal and validation of new, internationally recognised diagnostic test(s) for dourine.

A challenge of veterinary public health in the European Union: human trichinellosis due to horse meat consumption.

Human trichinellosis in the European Union due to insufficiently cooked horse meat consumption has been reported in France and in Italy during the past 25 years. It occurred in several outbreaks totalling more than 3,000 patients during this period, with a low mortality and a high morbidity. Causative Trichinella species or phenotypes were determined by the International Reference Laboratory for Trichinellosis in Rome, Italy. They were: Trichinella spiralis, T. britovi and T. murelli. As the culinary habits and customs of populations cannot be changed by regulations, measures of protection of public health essentially depend on food inspection. Comprehensive studies having been conducted in the pathophysiology of Trichinella infection in horses; it was demonstrated that the localisation of larvae are quite different in horses and in pork. It resulted an instruction from the French Veterinary, Service recommending that: the sampling of muscles in horses carcasses has to be done at first in the tongue (apex), then in the diaphragm (pillars); at least 50 g have to be sampled in each site; examination for larvae has to be done with the digestion method. Such recommendations might be extended to other EU member countries then to the OIE Zoo-Sanitary Code.

Challenges of non-tsetse transmitted animal trypanosomoses (NTTAT). An outline and some perspectives.

Non-tsetse transmitted animal Trypanosomoses (NTTAT) result from infection by Trypanosoma evansi, T. equiprdum, and T. vivax. The latter is present both in South America and in tsetse depopulated areas of Africa. Since the inception of the OIE group, numerous studies have been carried out to result in a better understanding of this infection and hope for immunological control.

The Office International des epizooties ad hoc group on non tsetse animal trypanosomoses: its origin, scope and perspectives.

A summary of the goals and activities of the ad hoc group on Non Tsetse Transmitted Animal Trypanosomosis belonging to the Office International des Epizooties is presented.

Report of the Thirteenth Meeting of the OIE Ad hoc Group on Non Tsetse-Transmitted Animal Trypanosomoses.

There is increasing interest in many parts of the world in trypanosomoses other than those transmitted by tsetse flies, as shown by numerous research projects and field studies. The refinement of techniques for studying the behaviour of trypanosomes (techniques of molecular biology) in axenic culture or in the parasitised host has led to progress in diagnosis and immunology, and a rational approach to chemotherapy and chemoprophylaxis of these infections. Field trials of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays in Africa, Asia and South America have shown that these tests may now be regarded as reliable in demonstrating antibodies or antigens for Trypanosoma evansi infection in buffalo, cattle and camels, and for mono-infection with T. equiperdum in equines. However, it is not yet possible to differentiate reliably between infections with T. evansi and T. equiperdum in equines. The card agglutination trypanosomosis test (CATT) has been adapted to T. evansi infection and can also be recommended. Immunosuppression induced by T. evansi infection inhibits the immune response to vaccination against Pasteurella haemolytica. In areas freed from tsetse flies (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Zambia) it has been observed that Trypanosoma vivax can be transmitted mechanically by other biting insects, which are at present being identified. Research on trypanocides has led to the toxic factor for Trypanosoma brucei or T. equiperdum present in human or simian serum being localised to the high density lipoprotein of serum lipoproteins. Various derivatives are being tested under laboratory conditions, and the efficacy of some (e.g. ronidazole) is being checked at present, while others are ready to pass to the development stage (e.g. IMOL 881). Melarsomine, already available commercially (as Cymelarsan) for the treatment of T. evansi infection in camels, is being studied for possible use in other species of animals.

First International Seminar on Non Tsetse-Transmitted Animal Trypanosomoses: conclusions and recommendations.

The author presents the conclusions and recommendations of the First International Seminar on Non Tsetse-Transmitted Animal Trypanosomoses (NTTAT) held in Annecy (France) on 14-16 October 1992, at which twenty-two countries and five international organisations were represented. Recommendations were made on the topics examined during the six seminar sessions, namely: general aspects of NTTAT epidemiology and diagnosis chemotherapy basic research the current situation of NTTAT in various countries final conclusions. This seminar enabled participants to collate the information currently available on NTTAT and to discuss the present state of research on these infections.

Report of the Twelfth International Meeting of the OIE Ad hoc Group on Non Tsetse-Transmitted Animal Trypanosomosis. Paris, 15 May 1991.

Studies of Trypanosoma evansi strains of widely varied origin (Africa, Asia, South America) have continued, leading to two groups of diagnostic procedures, tested first in the laboratory and then in the field: the card agglutination trypanosomosis test and the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to supplement microscopic examination of smears. A microscopy procedure for differentiating Trypanosoma species in smears was proposed. Diagnostic kits have again been made available free of charge to interested and suitably qualified research workers. Several research workers have studied the lymphokines induced by T. evansi, and the question of the potential therapeutic use of these substances was raised. Research workers in Asia were increasingly involved in various problems associated with T. evansi, including fundamental research and potential applications in the field. The epidemiology of T. evansi infections has been the subject of numerous research projects in Asia and South America. Research on trypanocides has confirmed the activity of Cymelarsan, which has since been marketed, the properties of the new derivative T46 (pharmacokinetic studies) and the value of in vitro and in vivo comparisons of currently available trypanocides. The sphere of interest of the Group was extended to cover all forms of animal trypanosomosis not transmitted by tsetse flies.

Eleventh international meeting on Trypanosoma evansi: report of the Working Group. Paris, 17 May 1990.

Three objectives have been achieved by the Working Group since its creation in 1983: more detailed information (and consequently better awareness) of zones infected by T. evansi; refinement of diagnostic techniques and the development of test kits suitable for field use; development of a new synthetic trypanocide. Exchange of strains between specialist laboratories should be encouraged in order to compare isolates from Africa, Asia and South America by using current techniques of biotechnology, and to open the way to better knowledge of the pathogenicity of T. evansi and to the discovery of effective prophylactic measures. Research reported to the meeting was concerned with the taxonomy and genetics of T. evansi, the cloning and sequencing of nuclear and kinetoplastic DNA (kDNA), chromosomal polymorphism in relation to antigenic variation, the detection of lymphocytic interleukin 2 and its receptors in infected ponies, the use of monoclonal group antibodies to detect T. evansi, and the importance of natural receptivity of the host. A text concerning the diagnosis of surra (T. evansi infection) was drafted and forwarded to the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) for incorporation in the OIE Manual of recommended diagnostic techniques and requirements for biological products. A concise dossier was presented on the pharmacology and pharmacodynamics of the new trypanocide, melarsomine (proprietary name Cymelarsan). The recommended active dosage was 0.25 mg/kg body weight, given as a single intramuscular or subcutaneous injection. Laboratory tests were also reported with ronidazole, demonstrating its trypanocidal activity in rats.

Tenth international meeting on Trypanosoma evansi: report of the working group. Paris, 24 May 1989.

Some epidemiological surveys have provided information on the incidence of Trypanosoma evansi infection among dromedaries in Mali, and among buffaloes in Java and Indonesia. The disease among camels has been reported again from Kazakhstan in the USSR, with the coexistence of T. evansi and Cephalopina titillator in animals which developed acute infection. The disease has been studied among horses in Venezuela and among buffaloes in Vietnam and Indonesia, and suspected among horses in Brazil. Diagnostic kits for rapid and reliable detection of T. evansi are being made available free of charge, upon request, by the institutes which have developed these new techniques, namely: detecting the parasite by agglutination-lysis; detecting antibody (by a modification of CATT); detecting antigen (by using monoclonal antibodies). Once these various diagnostic procedures developed by competent institutes have been evaluated and used widely, the next step will be to standardise the techniques and the antigens. Differential diagnosis of T. evansi and T. equiperdum is still difficult in the case of akinetoplastic strains. For improved evaluation of T. evansi isolates, a proposal has been made to form collections of complementary DNA (cDNA) with a view to exchanging these copies and the original strains. The advice of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature has been requested for definitive adoption of a binomial designation for the species T. evansi. With more extensive data on the pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of Cymelarsan and laboratory testing of a new trypanocide called "IMOL 881", research on trypanocides continues.

Parasitology in France: the past.

The 'French School of Parasitology' has its roots in the thirteenth century. Since then, it has contributed much to our understanding of parasitic organisms, their biology and their role as etiological agents of disease. In many fields of parasitology, the names of members of this school remain associated with taxonomic groups or species and they include two Nobel Prize winners, yet today, the origins of these names and the efforts of these early parasitologists have too often been forgotten. Here, Ian Humphery-Smith, Jean Théodoridès, Louis Touratier and Anne-Marie Le-Flohic outline the highlights of the French contribution to our knowledge of host-parasite relationships.

History of veterinary parasitology in France.

The history of veterinary parasitology in France can be divided into three parts. (1) The early period of veterinary education, and development of sections on parasites and parasitic diseases, immediately following the creation of the veterinary colleges in France in 1762-1765 by Cl. Bourgelat until the beginning of the 19th century. This was the period of academics, naturalists and zoologists, with the exception of P. Chabert who, as early as 1782, directed attention to the harmful effects of parasites on animals and tried to control them. (2) Identification and establishment of the field of veterinary parasitology and the development of specific research work, mostly in veterinary colleges, on the biology and systematic control of parasites. This period was dominated by the tremendous amount of work carried out by L.G. Neumann and A. Railliet in every topic of veterinary parasitology. (3) The modern period of veterinary parasitology (before and after World War II). This period is characterized by the increasing development of the most sophisticated techniques in fundamental and applied research to provide efficient cheap and practical means for the diagnosis and control of parasitic diseases in animals.