Phosphonate consumers potentially contributing to methane production in Brazilian soda lakes.

Oxic methane production (OMP) has been reported to significantly contribute to methane emissions from oxic surface waters. Demethylation of organic compounds, photosynthesis-associated methane production, and (bacterio)chlorophyll reduction activity are some of the investigated mechanisms as potential OMP sources related to photosynthetic organisms. Recently, cyanobacteria have often been correlated with methane accumulation and emission in freshwater, marine, and saline systems. The Brazilian Pantanal is the world's largest wetland system, with approximately 10,000 shallow lakes, most of which are highly alkaline and saline extreme environments. We initiated this study with an overall investigation using genetic markers, from which we explored metagenomic and limnological data from the Pantanal soda for five potential OMP pathways. Our results showed a strong positive correlation between dissolved methane concentrations and bloom events. Metagenomic data and nutrients, mainly orthophosphate, nitrogen, iron, and methane concentrations, suggest that the organic phosphorous demethylation pathway has the most potential to drive OMP in lakes with blooms. A specialized bacterial community was identified, including the Cyanobacteria Raphidiopsis, although the bloom does not contain the genes to carry out this process. These data showed enough evidence to infer the occurrence of an OMP pathway at Pantanal soda lakes, including the microbial sources and their relation to the cyanobacterial blooms.

[Peritoneal dialysis-related eosinophilic peritonitis: a case report and literature review].

Peritoneal dialysis (PD)-related peritonitis is recognized as a common complication of peritoneal dialysis. Eosinophilic peritonitis is a rare type of non-infection PD-related peritonitis. Eosinophilic peritonitis in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) patients was first reported in 1967. The cause of eosinophilic peritonitis is obscure, however it may be related to some etiologies: (1) hypersensitivity to PD materials, including catheter or dialysate; (2) bacteria, fungal or mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Clinical investigations include asymptomatic cloudy PD effluent, fever, abdominal pain and eosinophil count elevate in PD effluent. Eosinophilic peritonitis is usually mild and self-limited. With the development of PD, more eosinophilic peritonitis cases and researches were reported. Here, we report a patient on CAPD with eosinophilic peritonitis. A 71-year-old female patient developed end-stage renal disease for 4 years and underwent CAPD (2 000 mL of 1.5% dialysis solution with four exchanges daily) for 5 months. With a history of unclean food, she was hospitalized for complaints of diarrhea, fever and cloudy peritoneal effluent for 10 days. Dialysis effluent showed an elevated white blood cell (WBC) count of 1 980 cell/mm3, with 60% polymorphonuclear cells. She was diagnosed as PD-related peritonitis, and therapy was initiated with intraperitoneal ceftazidime 1 g once a day and vancomycin 500 mg every other day. She was admitted to the hospital as the symptoms were not relieved. Her peripheral blood cell count showed a total WBC count of 6 940 cells/mm3, 36.8% eosinophil. Her PD effluent analysis showed turbidity, total WBC count of 1 480 cells/mm3, and 83% polymorphonuclear cells. Her dialysate bacteria culture, fungus culture, polymerase chain reaction for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB-PCR), acid-fast stain were all negative. On admission day 4, the treatments were changed to levofloxacin 200 mg once a day and vancomycin 500 mg every other day. After two weeks of antibiotics treatment, patient's symptoms were not completely improved and her dialysis effluent remained cloudy. Her blood eosinophil count elevated to 36.8%，eosinophil proportion in PD effluent>90% and PD effluent pathological findings showed eosinophil>90%. Eosinophilic peritonitis was diagnosed and a decision was made to give loratadine daily dose of 10 mg orally. The possible reasons might be the patient's allergy to some components of PD solution or connection systems in the beginning of PD, and this bacterial peritonitis episode, as well as the application of vancomycin, might lead to the fact that eosinophilic peritonitis acutely developed. For there was no improvement in clinical symptoms, loratadine was stopped, and the patient was discharged 18 days later, and received follow-up closely. Two months later, eosinophil count in blood and PD fluid decreased to normal range with no symptom. This case reminds us that in any PD-related peritonitis patient with prolonged symptoms after appropriate antibiotic therapy, and typical clinical symptoms, the diagnosis of eosinophilic peritonitis should be considered. For the count and percentage of eosinophils are not routinely reported in most laboratories, doctors need to contact the department of laboratory and the department of pathology, to confirm the cell count and proportion of eosinophils in dialysis effluent, so as to make the definite diagnosis, which can not only avoid antibiotics overuse, but also avoid antibiotics-induced eosinophilic peritonitis (such as vancomycin).

Genetic analysis of Apuleia leiocarpa as revealed by random amplified polymorphic DNA markers: prospects for population genetic studies.

Apuleia leiocarpa (Vogel) J.F. MacBride is a hardwood species native to South America, which is at serious risk of extinction. Therefore, it is of prime importance to examine the genetic diversity of this species, information required for developing conservation, sustainable management, and breeding strategies. Although scarcely used in recent years, random amplified polymorphic DNA markers are useful resources for the analysis of genetic diversity and structure of tree species. This study represents the first genetic analysis based on DNA markers in A. leiocarpa that aimed to investigate the levels of polymorphism and to select markers for the precise characterization of its genetic structure. We adapted the original DNA extraction protocol based on cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide, and describe a simple procedure that can be used to obtain high-quality samples from leaf tissues of this tree. Eighteen primers were selected, revealing 92 bands, from which 75 were polymorphic and 61 were sufficient to represent the overall genetic structure of the population without compromising the precision of the analysis. Some fragments were conserved among individuals, which can be sequenced and used to analyze nucleotide diversity parameters through a wider set of A. leiocarpa individuals and populations. The individuals were separated into 11 distinct groups with variable levels of genetic diversity, which is important for selecting desirable genotypes and for the development of a conservation and sustainable management program. Our results are of prime importance for further investigations concerning the genetic characterization of this important, but vulnerable species.

Community outbreak of legionellosis and an environmental investigation into a community water system.

During two legionellosis outbreak investigations, one at a geriatric centre and the other in high-rise housing for seniors, it was observed that additional cases of legionellosis occurred in nearby smaller residential settings. This apparent geographical cluster of legionellosis occurred in the same general area of a community water storage tank. No potential airborne sources in or near the area could be identified, but a community water system storage tank that was centrally located among case residences spurred an investigation of water-quality factors in the identified investigation area. Conditions conducive for Legionella growth, particularly low chlorine residuals, were found. The rate of legionellosis among residents aged ⩾50 years in the investigation areas (61·0 and 64·1/100 000) was eight times higher than in the rest of the service area (9·0/100 000) and almost 20 times higher than the statewide annual average incidence rate (3·2/100 000). A water mains flushing programme in the area was launched by the water utility, and water samples taken before and during flushing found L. pneumophila.

Increased risk of pulmonary tuberculosis among patients with appendectomy in Taiwan.

The aim of this study was to determine whether there is a relationship between appendectomy and pulmonary tuberculosis in Taiwan. We designed a case-control study by analyzing the database from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Program. In total, we found 11,366 individuals (aged 20 years and older) with newly diagnosed pulmonary tuberculosis as the case group and 45,464 individuals without pulmonary tuberculosis as the control group from 1998 to 2011. The case group and the control group were matched on sex, age, and index year of diagnosing pulmonary tuberculosis. Using the multivariable unconditional logistic regression model, we measured the odds ratio (OR) and 95 % confidence interval (CI) for the risk of pulmonary tuberculosis associated with appendectomy and other comorbidities. After controlling for covariables, the multivariable unconditional logistic regression model disclosed that the OR of pulmonary tuberculosis was 1.4 in appendectomized patients (95 % CI = 1.13, 1.75) when compared to individuals without appendectomy. In further analysis, comorbidity with chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (OR = 4.63, 95 % CI = 3.21, 6.68), pneumoconiosis (OR = 7.80, 95 % CI = 1.43, 42.5), chronic kidney diseases (OR = 5.65, 95 % CI = 1.79, 17.8), or diabetes mellitus (OR = 2.11, 95 % CI = 1.30, 3.44) increased the risk of pulmonary tuberculosis in appendectomized patients. Individuals with appendectomy are at a 1.4-fold increased risk of pulmonary tuberculosis. Comorbidities, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumoconiosis, chronic kidney diseases, and diabetes mellitus, enhance the risk of pulmonary tuberculosis.

Lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme patterns in auricular pseudocyst fluid.

OBJECTIVE: We investigated lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme patterns in the cyst fluid of auricular pseudocysts and autogenous blood, to assist the diagnosis of auricular pseudocyst. METHODS: Twenty patients with auricular pseudocysts participated in this study conducted in Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital between February 2007 and June 2010. Patterns of lactate dehydrogenase in cyst fluid and autogenous blood were analysed. RESULTS: Levels of lactate dehydrogenase 1 and 2 were lower in auricular pseudocysts than in autogenous blood, whereas levels of lactate dehydrogenase 4 and 5 were higher; this difference was statistically significant (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme patterns in auricular pseudocyst fluid indicated higher percentage distributions of lactate dehydrogenase 4 and 5 and lower percentage distributions of lactate dehydrogenase 1 and 2. An effective laboratory method of evaluating the different lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme components was developed; this method may improve the accuracy of auricular pseudocyst diagnosis.

Gases and volatile compounds associated with micro-organisms in blown pack spoilage of Brazilian vacuum-packed beef.

UNLABELLED: This study correlated the composition of the spoilage bacterial flora with the main gaseous and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) found in the package headspace of spoiled, chilled, vacuum-packed meat. Fifteen chilled, vacuum-packed beef samples, suffering from blown pack spoilage, were studied using 16S rRNA clone sequencing. More than 50% of the bacteria were identified as lactic acid bacteria (LAB), followed by clostridia and enterobacteria. Fifty-one volatile compounds were detected in the spoiled samples. Although the major spoilage compounds were identified as alcohols and aldehydes, CO2 was identified as the major gas in the spoiled samples by headspace technique. Different species of bacteria contribute to different volatile compounds during meat spoilage. LAB played an important role in blown pack deterioration of the Brazilian beef studied. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The data generated by this study provided useful information to correlate the microbial contamination of Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria and Clostridium with the VOC and gaseous compound production to define, in a faster manner, not only the type of contamination, but also to prevent it.

Real-time PCR investigation on the expression of sboA and ituD genes in Bacillus spp.

AIMS: To investigate the expression of sboA and ituD genes among strains of Bacillus spp. at different pH and temperature. METHODS AND RESULTS: Different Bacillus strains from the Amazon basin and Bacillus subtilis ATCC 19659 were investigated for the production of subtilosin A and iturin A by qRT-PCR, analysing sboA and ituD gene expression under different culture conditions. Amazonian strains presented a general gene expression level lower than B. subtilis ATCC 19659 for sboA. In contrast, when analysing the expression of ituD gene, the strains from the Amazon, particularly P40 and P45B, exhibited higher levels of expression. Changes in pH (6 and 8) and temperature (37 and 42 °C) caused a decrease in sboA expression, but increased ituD expression among strains from Amazonian environment. CONCLUSIONS: Temperature and pH have an important influence on the expression of genes sboA (subtilosin A) and ituD (iturin A) among Bacillus spp. The strains P40 and P45B can be useful for the production of antimicrobial peptide iturin A. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Monitoring the expression of essential biosynthetic genes by qRT-PCR is a valuable tool for optimization of the production of antimicrobial peptides.

Nutritional deficiency in citrus with symptoms of citrus variegated chlorosis disease.

It is well known that citrus plants that have been infected by Xylella fastidiosa display nutritional deficiencies, probably caused by production of extracellular polymers by the bacteria that block normal nutrient flow through the xylem. The aim of this work was to study the mineral composition of specific foliar areas in different stages of infection in citrus. Thus, the concentrations of macro and micronutrients in leaves of citrus infected by X. fastidiosa were measured. Samples from four infected citrus orchards in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, were respectively collected from Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, Neves Paulista, Gavião Peixoto and Paraíso counties. The presence of X. fastidiosa in leaves was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using specific PCR primers. To understand the variation in leaf-nutrient content in citrus plants, we used foliar nutrient values from control (non-symptomatic) plants as a reference. Chemometric analysis showed that the deficiency of P and K in symptomatic trees for all orchards and high concentrations of Fe, Mn and Zn were observed in chlorotic areas, although other studies revealed deficiency of zinc in leaves. This is the first report showing that a correlation between chlorotic citrus leaf and higher concentrations of Fe, Mn and Zn are observed when infected and healthy plants were compared.

Nutritional deficiency in citrus with symptoms of citrus variegated chlorosis disease / Deficiência nutricional em citros com sintomas da doença da clorose variegada dos citros

It is well known that citrus plants that have been infected by Xylella fastidiosa display nutritional deficiencies, probably caused by production of extracellular polymers by the bacteria that block normal nutrient flow through the xylem. The aim of this work was to study the mineral composition of specific foliar areas in different stages of infection in citrus. Thus, the concentrations of macro and micronutrients in leaves of citrus infected by X. fastidiosa were measured. Samples from four infected citrus orchards in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, were respectively collected from Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, Neves Paulista, Gavião Peixoto and Paraíso counties. The presence of X. fastidiosa in leaves was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using specific PCR primers. To understand the variation in leaf-nutrient content in citrus plants, we used foliar nutrient values from control (non-symptomatic) plants as a reference. Chemometric analysis showed that the deficiency of P and K in symptomatic trees for all orchards and high concentrations of Fe, Mn and Zn were observed in chlorotic areas, although other studies revealed deficiency of zinc in leaves. This is the first report showing that a correlation between chlorotic citrus leaf and higher concentrations of Fe, Mn and Zn are observed when infected and healthy plants were compared.

Já é bem conhecido que cultivares cítricas que foram infectadas pela bactéria Xylella fastidiosa apresentam deficiências nutricionais devido à produção de polímero extracelular por esta bactéria, o qual bloqueia o fluxo normal de nutriente pelo xilema. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de estudar a composição mineral em áreas foliares específicas em diferentes fases de infecção na planta. Assim, as concentrações de macro e micronutrientes em folhas de citros infectados por X. fastidiosa foram quantificadas. Foram coletadas amostras de quatro pomares cítricos infectados localizados em: Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, Neves Paulista, Gavião Peixoto e Paraíso, no Estado de São Paulo. A presença de X. fastidiosa em folhas foi confirmada através de reação da polimerase em cadeia (PCR) usando iniciadores específicos. Para entender a variação no conteúdo de nutriente foliar em plantas cítricas, utilizou-se de valores de nutrientes foliares de plantas não sintomáticas (controle) como referência. A análise quimiométrica mostrou que a deficiência de P e K em plantas sintomáticas e concentrações altas de Fe, Mn e Zn foram presentes em áreas foliares cloróticas, embora outros estudos mostrem a deficiência de zinco em folhas. Este é o primeiro relato indicando que uma correlação entre folhas cítricas cloróticas e elevadas concentrações de Fe, Mn e Zn foi observada quando plantas infectadas e saudáveis foram comparadas.

An alternative method for Staphylococcus aureus DNA isolation / Metodologia alternativa para extração de DNA genômico de Staphylococcus aureus

This study describes a rapid procedure for the isolation of genomic DNA from Staphylococcus aureus that yielded a good amount of high quality DNA for the amplification of staphylococcal enterotoxins genes (A, B, C, D, and E) and the TSST-1 gene as well as enzymatic restriction (HaeIII) from environmental isolates. With this method, it was possible to detect these genes in a sample containing as little as 10(5) cells with positive PCR reactions obtained from approximately 10pg of DNA in a final reaction volume of 25µl.

Descreve-se um procedimento rápido para extração de DNA genômico de isolados de Staphylococcus aureus capaz de produzir DNA estafilocócico em qualidade e quantidade suficiente para a amplificação de genes que codificam enterotoxinas estafilocócicas (A - E) e para TSST-1 e restrição enzimática (HaeIII) de isolados ambientais. O método proposto foi capaz de detectar esses genes em um produto de extração contendo tanto quanto 10(5) células, e reações positivas de PCR foram obtidas de aproximadamente 10pg de DNA.

Interaction between cigarette, alcohol and betel nut use on esophageal cancer risk in Taiwan.

OBJECTIVE: In 2003 esophageal cancer was the sixth leading cause of death among men in Taiwan, but it is the fastest increasing (70%) alimentary tract cancer. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of different habits of betel nut chewing on esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and its interaction with cigarette use and alcohol consumption. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All 165 cases were pathologically proven esophageal SCC patients (all male, mean age = 56.0, range = 35-92 years) diagnosed by biopsy during gastroendoscopic examinations. The control group comprised 255 subjects (all male, mean age = 54.8, range = 40-92 years) selected from patients who had visited the Otolaryngology Outpatient or Inpatient Department of KMUH owing to a benign lesion over this field. All were interviewed to collect demographic and substance use information by a trained interviewer using a standardized questionnaire. RESULTS: Smoking (aOR = 5.4, 95% CI = 2.4-12.9, PAR = 72%), alcoholic beverage drinking (aOR = 17.6, 95% CI = 9.3-35.2, PAR = 76%) and low education level are independent risk factors for esophageal cancer. Although betel nut chewers only had a borderline significant higher risk than nonchewers (aOR = 1.7; 95% CI = 0.8-3.1), those who chewed with a piece of betel inflorescence (aOR = 4.2, 95% CI = 1.4-16.0) and swallow betel-quid juice (aOR = 3.3, 95% CI = 1.3-9.3) had a significant higher risk. Significant dose-response effects were found in daily quantity of drinking and smoking. There is a synergistic effect of these three substances on the development of esophageal cancer. CONCLUSION: Betel nut chewing plays a relevant role in the development of esophageal SCC but adds to the carcinogenetic effect of smoking and alcohol drinking. Direct mucosal contact of betel juice may contribute to its carcinogenesis.

Comparative genomics of two Leptospira interrogans serovars reveals novel insights into physiology and pathogenesis.

Leptospira species colonize a significant proportion of rodent populations worldwide and produce life-threatening infections in accidental hosts, including humans. Complete genome sequencing of Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni and comparative analysis with the available Leptospira interrogans serovar Lai genome reveal that despite overall genetic similarity there are significant structural differences, including a large chromosomal inversion and extensive variation in the number and distribution of insertion sequence elements. Genome sequence analysis elucidates many of the novel aspects of leptospiral physiology relating to energy metabolism, oxygen tolerance, two-component signal transduction systems, and mechanisms of pathogenesis. A broad array of transcriptional regulation proteins and two new families of afimbrial adhesins which contribute to host tissue colonization in the early steps of infection were identified. Differences in genes involved in the biosynthesis of lipopolysaccharide O side chains between the Copenhageni and Lai serovars were identified, offering an important starting point for the elucidation of the organism's complex polysaccharide surface antigens. Differences in adhesins and in lipopolysaccharide might be associated with the adaptation of serovars Copenhageni and Lai to different animal hosts. Hundreds of genes encoding surface-exposed lipoproteins and transmembrane outer membrane proteins were identified as candidates for development of vaccines for the prevention of leptospirosis.

Detection and diversity assessment of Xylella fastidiosa in field-collected plant and insect samples by using 16S rRNA and gyrB sequences.

The causal agent of diseases in many economically important plants is attributed to the xylem-limited bacterium Xylella fastidiosa. The detection of this plant pathogen has been hampered due to its difficult isolation and slow growth on plates. Nearly complete nucleotide sequences of the 16S rRNA gene and partial sequences of the gyrB gene were determined for 18 strains of X. fastidiosa isolated from different plant hosts. A phylogenetic analysis, based on gyrB, grouped strains in three clusters; grape-isolated strains formed one cluster, citrus-coffee strains formed another cluster, and a third cluster resulted from all other strains. Primer pairs designed for the 16S rRNA and gyrB genes were extensively searched in databases to verify their in silico specificity. Primer pairs were certified with 30 target and 36 nontarget pure cultures of microorganisms, confirming 100% specificity. A multiplex PCR protocol was developed and its sensitivity tested. Sequencing of PCR products confirmed the validity of the multiplex PCR. Xylella fastidiosa was detected in field-collected plants, disease vector insects, and nonsymptomatic but infected plants. Specific detection of X. fastidiosa may facilitate the understanding of its ecological significance and prevention of spread of the disease.

Comparative analyses of the complete genome sequences of Pierce's disease and citrus variegated chlorosis strains of Xylella fastidiosa.

Xylella fastidiosa is a xylem-dwelling, insect-transmitted, gamma-proteobacterium that causes diseases in many plants, including grapevine, citrus, periwinkle, almond, oleander, and coffee. X. fastidiosa has an unusually broad host range, has an extensive geographical distribution throughout the American continent, and induces diverse disease phenotypes. Previous molecular analyses indicated three distinct groups of X. fastidiosa isolates that were expected to be genetically divergent. Here we report the genome sequence of X. fastidiosa (Temecula strain), isolated from a naturally infected grapevine with Pierce's disease (PD) in a wine-grape-growing region of California. Comparative analyses with a previously sequenced X. fastidiosa strain responsible for citrus variegated chlorosis (CVC) revealed that 98% of the PD X. fastidiosa Temecula genes are shared with the CVC X. fastidiosa strain 9a5c genes. Furthermore, the average amino acid identity of the open reading frames in the strains is 95.7%. Genomic differences are limited to phage-associated chromosomal rearrangements and deletions that also account for the strain-specific genes present in each genome. Genomic islands, one in each genome, were identified, and their presence in other X. fastidiosa strains was analyzed. We conclude that these two organisms have identical metabolic functions and are likely to use a common set of genes in plant colonization and pathogenesis, permitting convergence of functional genomic strategies.

Involvement of brain glutamate release in pyrogenic fever.

Whether the glutamate release in the organum vasculosum laminae terminalis (OVLT) is attributable to genesis of a pyrogenic fever is unclear. The lack of information led us to evaluate the changes in glutamate concentrations of OVLT during the fever induced by staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) in unanesthetized rabbits. Both the OVLT concentrations of glutamate and the colonic temperatures were simultaneously monitored during systemic injection of SEA, MK801 (an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor channel blocker), ketamine (an NMDA receptor channel blocker), or normal saline. The extracellular dialysates in the brain were collected using a microdialysis probe previously placed in the OVLT region. The concentrations of glutamate in the microdialysates were measured by a high-pressure liquid chromatography in combination with a fluorescence detector. Systemic administration of SEA (30 ng x kg(-1) I.V.) increased both the concentrations of glutamate in the OVLT and the colonic temperatures. Glutamate appeared to rise slightly earlier than body temperature. Pretreatment or posttreatment with MK801 or ketamine significantly attenuated the SEA-induced augmenting glutamate release in the OVLT and fever in rabbits. The suppression of glutamate release appeared to start slightly earlier than temperature decline. In addition, the SEA-induced fever could be mimicked by direct injection of glutamate or SEA into the OVLT area. The fever induced by intra-OVLT injection of SEA or glutamate was significantly attenuated by pretreatment with an intra-OVLT dose of MK801 (5 microg) or ketamine (10 microg). The results suggest that glutamatergic pathways in the OVLT region are in pyrogenic fever genesis.

Expression of transforming growth factor-beta 1 and alpha-smooth muscle actin of myofibroblast in the pathogenesis of nasal polyps.

The pathophysiology of nasal polyps remains unclear, but recent work suggests that many cytokines are produced in nasal polyps (NPs) and that they may play various important roles in the pathogenesis of NPs. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-beta 1), secreted by many inflammatory cells, is a potent inducer of myofibroblasts. Myofibroblasts express alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA) and a source of extracellular matrix (ECM). In this study, we investigated a potential link between inflammation and the growth process in human NPs. Sixteen patients who were affected by NPs and who had undergone functional endoscopic sinus surgery were included in this study. Nasal mucosa of inferior turbinate (NM) of 10 patients who had received rhinoplasty or turbinectomy for other disease was used as the control. alpha-SMA and TGF-beta 1 were detected using immunohistochemistry and the number of labeled cells were counted (alpha-SMA and TGF-beta 1 indices). The expression of alpha-SMA and TGF-beta 1 indices found in NPs and NM was compared using Student's t-test. In our study, alpha-SMA and TGF-beta 1 indices were found to be significantly higher in nasal polyps than in nasal mucosa. TGF-beta 1 produced by inflammatory cells can influence the development of myofibroblasts which in turn can induce extracellular matrix accumulation and, therefore, TGF-beta 1 plays a important role in the formation of nasal polyps.