Longitudinal Development of Explosive Leg Power from Childhood to Adulthood in Soccer Players.

The aim of the this study was to investigate the development of explosive leg power by using 2 similar jumping protocols (countermovement jump and standing broad jump) in 555 Belgian, high-level young soccer players, aged between 7 and 20 years. The total sample was divided into 3 longitudinal samples related to growth and maturation (pre-teenchildhood: (6-10 years;), early adolescence: (11-16 years;) and late adolescence: (17-20 years)), and 6 multilevel regression models were obtained. Generally, both jumping protocols emphasized that chronological age, body size dimensions (by means of fat mass in the late childhood and early adolescence groups, fat-free mass in the late adolescence group and stature--(not for CMJ in late childhood group) and fat mass in the late childhood and early adolescence groups, and fat-free mass in the late adolescence group) and motor coordination (one item of a 3-component test battery) are longitudinal predictors of explosive leg power from childhood to young adulthood. The contribution of maturational status was not investigated in this study. The present findings highlight the importance of including non-specific motor coordination in soccer talent development programs.

The Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 is reliable in young high-level soccer players.

The aim of the study was to investigate test reliability of the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (YYIR1) in 36 high-level youth soccer players, aged between 13 and 18 years. Players were divided into three age groups (U15, U17 and U19) and completed three YYIR1 in three consecutive weeks. Pairwise comparisons were used to investigate test reliability (for distances and heart rate responses) using technical error (TE), coefficient of variation (CV), intra-class correlation (ICC) and limits of agreement (LOA) with Bland-Altman plots. The mean YYIR1 distances for the U15, U17 and U19 groups were 2024 ± 470 m, 2404 ± 347 m and 2547 ± 337 m, respectively. The results revealed that the TEs varied between 74 and 172 m, CVs between 3.0 and 7.5%, and ICCs between 0.87 and 0.95 across all age groups for the YYIR1 distance. For heart rate responses, the TEs varied between 1 and 6 bpm, CVs between 0.7 and 4.8%, and ICCs between 0.73 and 0.97. The small ratio LOA revealed that any two YYIR1 performances in one week will not differ by more than 9 to 28% due to measurement error. In summary, the YYIR1 performance and the physiological responses have proven to be highly reliable in a sample of Belgian high-level youth soccer players, aged between 13 and 18 years. The demonstrated high level of intermittent endurance capacity in all age groups may be used for comparison of other prospective young soccer players.

Cue usage in volleyball: a time course comparison of elite, intermediate and novice female players.

This study compared visual search strategies in adult female volleyball players of three levels. Video clips of the attack of the opponent team were presented on a large screen and participants reacted to the final pass before the spike. Reaction time, response accuracy and eye movement patterns were measured. Elite players had the highest response accuracy (97.50 ± 3.5%) compared to the intermediate (91.50 ± 4.7%) and novice players (83.50 ± 17.6%; p<0.05). Novices had a remarkably high range of reaction time but no significant differences were found in comparison to the reaction time of elite and intermediate players. In general, the three groups showed similar gaze behaviour with the apparent use of visual pivots at moments of reception and final pass. This confirms the holistic model of image perception for volleyball and suggests that expert players extract more information from parafoveal regions.

Relative age, biological maturation and anaerobic characteristics in elite youth soccer players.

Being relatively older and having an advanced biological maturation status have been associated with increased likelihood of selection in young elite soccer players. The aims of the study were to investigate the presence of a relative age effect (RAE) and the influence of birth quarter on anthropometry, biological maturity and anaerobic parameters in 374 elite Belgian youth soccer players. The sample was divided into 3 age groups, each subdivided into 4 birth quarters (BQ). Players had their APHV estimated and height, weight, SBJ, CMJ, sprint 5 and 30 m were assessed. Overall, more players were born in BQ1 (42.3%) compared with players born in BQ4 (13.7%). Further, MANCOVA revealed no differences in all parameters between the 4 BQ's, controlled for age and APHV. These results suggest that relatively youngest players can offset the RAE if they enter puberty earlier. Furthermore, the results demonstrated possible differences between BQ1 and BQ4, suggesting that caution is necessary when estimating differences between players because of large discrepancies between statistical and practical significance. These findings also show that coaches should develop realistic expectations of the physical abilities of younger players and these expectations should be made in the context of biological characteristics rather than chronological age-based standards.

A longitudinal analysis of gross motor coordination in overweight and obese children versus normal-weight peers.

BACKGROUND: The relationship of childhood overweight (OW) and obesity (OB) with motor skill and coordination is gaining due attention; however, longitudinal evidence is currently lacking. OBJECTIVE: The dual purpose of this study was (1) to investigate the short-term evolution in the level of gross motor coordination according to children's weight status, and (2) to identify those factors predicting their gross motor coordination performance over a 2-year interval. SUBJECTS: Participants were 50 children with OW, including 8 with OB (aged 6-10 years at baseline, with 52% boys), and 50 with normal-weight (NW) matched for gender and age. MEASUREMENTS: Anthropometrics (body height, body weight, body mass index (BMI), %body fat) and level of gross motor coordination (Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder, KTK) were assessed in 2007 (baseline) and 2 years later in 2009 (follow-up). At baseline, participants completed a survey based on the Flemish Physical Activity Questionnaire (FPAQ) to obtain socio-demographic information and to determine physical activity levels in diverse domains. RESULTS: The evolution in the level of gross motor coordination over time was strongly related to children's weight status. Participants in the NW group showed more progress than their OW/OB peers, who demonstrated significantly poorer performances. Accordingly, between-group differences in KTK outcomes (that is, raw item scores and total motor quotient) became more evident over time. Multiple linear regression analysis further indicated that, in addition to BMI per se (negative predictor), participation in organized sports within a sports club (positive predictor) determines gross motor coordination performance(s) 2 years later. CONCLUSION: Our results provide conclusive evidence for an increasingly widening gap of OW/OB children's gross motor coordination relative to NW peers across developmental time in the absence of targeted initiatives. Special attention is thus needed for OW/OB children, especially for those not practicing sports in a club environment, in terms of motor skill improvement to promote regular participation in physical activity.

Relative age effect and Yo-Yo IR1 in youth soccer.

The aims of the study were to investigate the presence of a relative age effect and the influence of birth quarter on anthropometric characteristics, an estimation of biological maturity and performance in the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 in 606 elite, Flemish youth soccer players. The sample was divided into 5 chronological age groups (U10-U19), each subdivided into 4 birth quarters. Players had their APHV estimated and height, weight and Yo-Yo IR1 performance were assessed. Differences between quarters were investigated using uni- and multivariate analyses. Overall, significantly (P<0.001) more players were born in the first quarter (37.6%) compared to the last (13.2%). Further, no significant differences in anthropometric variables and Yo-Yo IR1 performance were found between the 4 birth quarters. However, there was a trend for players born in the first quarter being taller and heavier than players born in the fourth quarter. Players born in the last quarter tended to experience their peak in growth earlier, this may have enabled them to compete physically with their relatively older peers. Our results indicated selection procedures which are focused on the formation of strong physical and physiological homogeneous groups. Relative age and individual biological maturation should be considered when selecting adolescent soccer players.

The contribution of growth and maturation in the functional capacity and skill performance of male adolescent handball players.

The present study determined to what extent the variance in performance might be explained by chronological age, biological maturation, training load and anthropometry in 168 Belgian male handball players aged 14 years: anthropometric, strength, speed and sport-specific skills were assessed. MANOVA tested the effect of chronological age and biological maturity, whereas MANCOVA was used to compare maturity groups controlling for chronological age and training load. In addition, canonical correlation analysis was used between age, maturity-offset and anthropometry, on one side, and performance and sport-specific skills, on the other side. Results revealed significant differences between early, on-time and late maturity groups for anthropometry (p<0.001), strength (p<0.001) and sprint 20-m (p<0.05) in favour of the early maturing players. The difference between the mean values of the extreme groups for height was 24.8 cm, for weight 33.2 kg and, for body fat 6.5%; for handgrip 20.2 kg, for 5-jump test 1.1 m and for 20-m sprint 0.20 s. Maturity status had no effect on sport-specific skills. Canonical correlations indicated that poorer scores in sport-specific skills were related to fatness and lack of training. In parallel, a substantial relationship was found between early maturity-offset, body size, strength and 20-m sprint.

Modelling developmental changes in repeated-sprint ability by chronological and skeletal ages in young soccer players.

This study investigated the influence of chronological (CA) and skeletal ages (SA), anthropometry, aerobic endurance and lower limb explosive strength on developmental changes in repeated-sprint ability (RSA) in soccer players aged 11-17 years. Participants were annually followed over 5 years, resulting in 366 measurements. Multilevel regression modelling analysed longitudinal data aligned by CA and SA (Model 1 and 2, respectively). After diagnosing for multicollinearity, it was possible to predict RSA with 2-level hierarchical models [Model 1 (CA as Level 2 predictor): Log-Likelihood=1,515.29, p<0.01; Model 2 (SA as Level 2 predictor): Log-Likelihood=1,513.89, p<0.01]. Estimating sum of sprints for young soccer players are given by equations: sum of sprints=84.47 - 1.82 × CA + 0.03 × CA2 - 0.05 × aerobic endurance - 0.10 × lower limb explosive strength -0.09 × fat-free mass + 0.13 × fat mass (Model 1); 73.58 - 0.43 × SA - 0.05 × aerobic endurance - 0.10 × lower limb explosive strength - 0.08 × fat-free mass - 0.45 × training experience + 0.13 × fat mass (Model 2). The models produced performance curves that may be used to estimate individual performance across adolescent years. Finally, the validity of each model was confirmed based on corresponding measurements taken on an independent cross-sectional sample.

Factors discriminating gymnasts by competitive level.

This study examined the relationship between the performance level as evaluated by expert coaches and the results on a multidimensional test battery in female gymnastics. 4 coaches assigned 168 female gymnasts aged 6-8 years into 2 groups (Elite-level potential, n=103 and Sub-elite-level potential, n=65) based upon their technical evaluation of the gymnastics abilities on the 4 apparatus. Moreover, anthropometric, physical and coordinative characteristics were assessed. ANOVA with age as fixed factor revealed that results on all aforementioned characteristics, except body fat%, sit-and-reach, rope climbing and a motor coordination test, significantly improved with increasing age. MANCOVA with competitive level as fixed factor and age and maturity as covariates indicated that all gymnasts portrayed a similar athletic built (Wilks' lambda=0.95, F=2.20, p=0.071), but the elite-level potential gymnasts outperformed the less gifted gymnasts on all physical (Wilks' lambda=0.65, F=8.00, p<0.001) and coordinative variables (Wilks' lambda=0.79, F=22.10, p<0.001). Discriminant analysis revealed motor coordination to be the most important factor in discriminating between young female elite and sub-elite gymnasts. A test battery measuring multidimensional performance characteristics is valuable in addition to the coaches' technical judgment in the search of young gifted female gymnasts.

The KörperkoordinationsTest für Kinder: reference values and suitability for 6-12-year-old children in Flanders.

An adequate coordination level in children is important for their general development, but also for health, psychosocial, academic and well-being-related reasons. In this study, the suitability of the KörperkoordinationsTest für Kinder (KTK) as an assessment instrument for the gross motor coordination was evaluated in 2470 children from 26 elementary schools for general education spread over the Flemish and Brussels-capital region. All children performed four subtests: walking backwards (WB), moving sideways (MS), hopping for height (HH) and jumping sideways (JS). Age and gender-specific values were established for the Flemish children anno 2008. Overall, the current sample scored significantly worse than their 1974 German counterparts (P<0.001). Score distribution showed 21% of the children being placed in the problematic range of gross motor coordination level. A decline in coordination was observed especially in those tasks relying primarily on coordinative capacities (WB and MS), while improvements or status quo in those tasks relying on strength and speed (JS and HH) were explained by secular trends. We suggest that the KTK is a valuable instrument for the assessment of the gross motor coordination of Flemish children and efforts should be made in order to face the decline in coordination.

Discrimination of u-14 soccer players by level and position.

Adolescence is often viewed as a critical period for selection in youth soccer. The present study compared the characteristics of regionally selected and non-selected under-14 players (U-14) as a group and by position. Players were classified as local (n=69) and regional (n=45). Weight, height, skinfolds, functional capacities, soccer skills and goal orientation were measured and skeletal age was assessed with the Fels method. Factorial ANOVA was used to test the effect of selection, position and respective interaction terms, while discriminant analysis was used to identify the variables that contributed to selection. Selected players had an advanced maturity status (F=24.97, p<0.01), were heavier (F=30.67, p<0.01) and taller (F=35.07, p<0.01); performed better in explosive power (F=21.25, p<0.01), repeated sprints (F=20.04, p<0.01) and ball control (F=3.69, p<0.05); and were more ego oriented (F=13.29, p<0.01). The 2 competitive groups did not differ in agility, aerobic endurance, dribbling, shooting, passing, and task orientation. Position-related variation was negligible. The percentage of players who were correctly classified in the original groups was slightly lower when the analysis was performed for the total sample (86%) than by position (86-90%). Future research on talent identification and selection should adopt a multidimensional approach including variables related to the physiological, perceptual, cognitive and tactical demands.

Anthropometric and anaerobic fitness profile of elite and non-elite female soccer players.

AIM: The main aim of the current study was to compare the anthropometrical and fitness profile of female soccer players by level and by playing positions. The second purpose was to explore correlations between kicking speed on the one hand and anthropometric features and explosive strength on the other. METHODS: Female soccer players (N.=190) were tested divided in two groups: elite group (N.=100) and non-elite group (N.=90). Body mass, height, leg length, body composition, counter movement jump, drop jump and kicking speed with both legs were measured. RESULTS: After controlling for experience with multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), body mass, body fat and muscle mass differed significantly by level. MANCOVA also revealed that all the anthropometrical variables differed by playing position. However, MANCOVA did not show significant differences by level of play, neither for explosive strength nor for kicking speed but revealed significant differences among playing positions. There were significant positive correlations between body mass, height, leg length, muscle mass, counter movement jump height, drop jump height and experience on the one hand and kicking speed with dominant and non-dominant leg on the other for the elite and non-elite players. CONCLUSIONS: Elite players differ from their non-elite counterparts in terms of anthropometrical features, while explosive strength and kicking speed are not sensitive enough to distinguish between levels. On the other hand, the findings indicate few positional variations, and only goalkeepers, tend to have a specific anthropometric and fitness profile. Anthropometric variables, explosive strength and experience have an influence on kicking speed.

A multidisciplinary selection model for youth soccer: the Ghent Youth Soccer Project.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the relationships between physical and performance characteristics and level of skill in youth soccer players aged 12-16 years. METHODS: Anthropometry, maturity status, functional and sport-specific parameters were assessed in elite, sub-elite, and non-elite youth players in four age groups: U13 (n = 117), U14 (n = 136), U15 (n = 138) and U16 (n = 99). RESULTS: Multivariate analyses of covariance by age group with maturity status as the covariate showed that elite players scored better than the non-elite players on strength, flexibility, speed, aerobic endurance, anaerobic capacity and several technical skills (p<0.05). Stepwise discriminant analyses showed that running speed and technical skills were the most important characteristics in U13 and U14 players, while cardiorespiratory endurance was more important in U15 and U16 players. The results suggest that discriminating characteristics change with competitive age levels. CONCLUSIONS: Characteristics that discriminate youth soccer players vary by age group. Talent identification models should thus be dynamic and provide opportunities for changing parameters in a long-term developmental context.