Megalochelin, a Tridecapeptide Siderophore from a Talented Streptomycete.

Streptomycetes are bacteria known for their extraordinary biosynthetic capabilities. Herein, we describe the genome and metabolome of a particularly talented strain, Streptomyces ID71268. Its 8.4-Mbp genome harbors 32 bioinformatically predicted biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs), out of which 10 are expressed under a single experimental condition. In addition to five families of known metabolites with previously assigned BGCs (nigericin, azalomycin F, ectoine, SF2766, and piericidin), we were able to predict BGCs for three additional metabolites: streptochlorin, serpetene, and marinomycin. The strain also produced two families of presumably novel metabolites, one of which was associated with growth inhibitory activity against the human opportunistic pathogen Acinetobacter baumannii in an iron-dependent manner. Bioassay-guided fractionation, followed by extensive liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and NMR analyses, established that the molecule responsible for the observed antibacterial activity is an unusual tridecapeptide siderophore with a ring-and-tail structure: the heptapeptide ring is formed through a C-C bond between a 2,3-dihydroxybenzoate (DHB) cap on Gly1 and the imidazole moiety of His7, while the hexapeptide tail is sufficient for binding iron. This molecule, named megalochelin, is the largest known siderophore. The megalochelin BGC encodes a 13-module nonribosomal peptide synthetase for the synthesis of the tridecapeptide, and a copper-dependent oxidase, likely responsible for the DHB-imidazole cross-link, whereas the genes for synthesis of the DHB starter unit are apparently specified in trans by a different BGC. Our results suggest that prolific producers of specialized metabolites may conceal hidden treasures within a background of known compounds.

ActinoBase: tools and protocols for researchers working on Streptomyces and other filamentous actinobacteria.

Actinobacteria is an ancient phylum of Gram-positive bacteria with a characteristic high GC content to their DNA. The ActinoBase Wiki is focused on the filamentous actinobacteria, such as Streptomyces species, and the techniques and growth conditions used to study them. These organisms are studied because of their complex developmental life cycles and diverse specialised metabolism which produces many of the antibiotics currently used in the clinic. ActinoBase is a community effort that provides valuable and freely accessible resources, including protocols and practical information about filamentous actinobacteria. It is aimed at enabling knowledge exchange between members of the international research community working with these fascinating bacteria. ActinoBase is an anchor platform that underpins worldwide efforts to understand the ecology, biology and metabolic potential of these organisms. There are two key differences that set ActinoBase apart from other Wiki-based platforms: [1] ActinoBase is specifically aimed at researchers working on filamentous actinobacteria and is tailored to help users overcome challenges working with these bacteria and [2] it provides a freely accessible resource with global networking opportunities for researchers with a broad range of experience in this field.

N-Acetyl-Cysteinylated Streptophenazines from Streptomyces.

Here, we describe two N-acetyl-cysteinylated streptophenazines (1 and 2) produced by the soil-derived Streptomyces sp. ID63040 and identified through a metabolomic approach. These metabolites attracted our interest due to their low occurrence frequency in a large library of fermentation broth extracts and their consistent presence in biological replicates of the producer strain. The compounds were found to possess broad-spectrum antibacterial activity while exhibiting low cytotoxicity. The biosynthetic gene cluster from Streptomyces sp. ID63040 was found to be highly similar to the streptophenazine reference cluster in the MIBiG database, which originates from the marine Streptomyces sp. CNB-091. Compounds 1 and 2 were the main streptophenazine products from Streptomyces sp. ID63040 at all cultivation times but were not detected in Streptomyces sp. CNB-091. The lack of obvious candidates for cysteinylation in the Streptomyces sp. ID63040 biosynthetic gene cluster suggests that the N-acetyl-cysteine moiety derives from cellular functions, most likely from mycothiol. Overall, our data represent an interesting example of how to leverage metabolomics for the discovery of new natural products and point out the often-neglected contribution of house-keeping cellular functions to natural product diversification.

Integrating perspectives in actinomycete research: an ActinoBase review of 2020-21.

Last year ActinoBase, a Wiki-style initiative supported by the UK Microbiology Society, published a review highlighting the research of particular interest to the actinomycete community. Here, we present the second ActinoBase review showcasing selected reports published in 2020 and early 2021, integrating perspectives in the actinomycete field. Actinomycetes are well-known for their unsurpassed ability to produce specialised metabolites, of which many are used as therapeutic agents with antibacterial, antifungal, or immunosuppressive activities. Much research is carried out to understand the purpose of these metabolites in the environment, either within communities or in host interactions. Moreover, many efforts have been placed in developing computational tools to handle big data, simplify experimental design, and find new biosynthetic gene cluster prioritisation strategies. Alongside, synthetic biology has provided advances in tools to elucidate the biosynthesis of these metabolites. Additionally, there are still mysteries to be uncovered in understanding the fundamentals of filamentous actinomycetes' developmental cycle and regulation of their metabolism. This review focuses on research using integrative methodologies and approaches to understand the bigger picture of actinomycete biology, covering four research areas: i) technology and methodology; ii) specialised metabolites; iii) development and regulation; and iv) ecology and host interactions.

Effective approaches to discover new microbial metabolites in a large strain library.

Natural products have provided many molecules to treat and prevent illnesses in humans, animals and plants. While only a small fraction of the existing microbial diversity has been explored for bioactive metabolites, tens of thousands of molecules have been reported in the literature over the past 80 years. Thus, the main challenge in microbial metabolite screening is to avoid the re-discovery of known metabolites in a cost-effective manner. In this perspective, we report and discuss different approaches used in our laboratory over the past few years, ranging from bioactivity-based screening to looking for metabolic rarity in different datasets to deeply investigating a single Streptomyces strain. Our results show that it is possible to find novel chemistry through a limited screening effort, provided that appropriate selection criteria are in place.

Muropeptides Stimulate Growth Resumption from Stationary Phase in Escherichia coli.

When nutrients run out, bacteria enter a dormant metabolic state. This low or undetectable metabolic activity helps bacteria to preserve their scant reserves for the future needs, yet it also diminishes their ability to scan the environment for new growth-promoting substrates. However, neighboring microbial growth is a reliable indicator of a favorable environment and can thus serve as a cue for exiting dormancy. Here we report that for Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa this cue is provided by the basic peptidoglycan unit (i.e. muropeptide). We show that several forms of muropeptides from a variety of bacterial species can stimulate growth resumption of dormant cells and the sugar - peptide bond is crucial for this activity. These results, together with previous research that identifies muropeptides as a germination signal for bacterial spores, and their detection by mammalian immune cells, show that muropeptides are a universal cue for bacterial growth.