Deficiency of IL-22-binding protein enhances the ability of the gut microbiota to protect against enteric pathogens.

Interleukin 22 (IL-22) promotes intestinal barrier integrity, stimulating epithelial cells to enact defense mechanisms against enteric infections, including the production of antimicrobial peptides. IL-22 binding protein (IL-22BP) is a soluble decoy encoded by the Il22ra2 gene that decreases IL-22 bioavailability, attenuating IL-22 signaling. The impact of IL-22BP on gut microbiota composition and functioning is poorly understood. We found that Il22ra2-/- mice are better protected against Clostridioides difficile and Citrobacter rodentium infections. This protection relied on IL-22-induced antimicrobial mechanisms before the infection occurred, rather than during the infection itself. Indeed, the gut microbiota of Il22ra2-/- mice mitigated infection of wild-type (WT) mice when transferred via cohousing or by cecal microbiota transplantation. Indicator species analysis of WT and Il22ra2-/- mice with and without cohousing disclosed that IL22BP deficiency yields a gut bacterial composition distinct from that of WT mice. Manipulation of dietary fiber content, measurements of intestinal short-chain fatty acids and oral treatment with acetate disclosed that resistance to C. difficile infection is related to increased production of acetate by Il22ra2-/--associated microbiota. Together, these findings suggest that IL-22BP represents a potential therapeutic target for those at risk for or with already manifest infection with this and perhaps other enteropathogens.

Shotgun metagenomics and systemic targeted metabolomics highlight indole-3-propionic acid as a protective gut microbial metabolite against influenza infection.

The gut-to-lung axis is critical during respiratory infections, including influenza A virus (IAV) infection. In the present study, we used high-resolution shotgun metagenomics and targeted metabolomic analysis to characterize influenza-associated changes in the composition and metabolism of the mouse gut microbiota. We observed several taxonomic-level changes on day (D)7 post-infection, including a marked reduction in the abundance of members of the Lactobacillaceae and Bifidobacteriaceae families, and an increase in the abundance of Akkermansia muciniphila. On D14, perturbation persisted in some species. Functional scale analysis of metagenomic data revealed transient changes in several metabolic pathways, particularly those leading to the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), polyamines, and tryptophan metabolites. Quantitative targeted metabolomics analysis of the serum revealed changes in specific classes of gut microbiota metabolites, including SCFAs, trimethylamine, polyamines, and indole-containing tryptophan metabolites. A marked decrease in indole-3-propionic acid (IPA) blood level was observed on D7. Changes in microbiota-associated metabolites correlated with changes in taxon abundance and disease marker levels. In particular, IPA was positively correlated with some Lactobacillaceae and Bifidobacteriaceae species (Limosilactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus animalis) and negatively correlated with Bacteroidales bacterium M7, viral load, and inflammation markers. IPA supplementation in diseased animals reduced viral load and lowered local (lung) and systemic inflammation. Treatment of mice with antibiotics targeting IPA-producing bacteria before infection enhanced viral load and lung inflammation, an effect inhibited by IPA supplementation. The results of this integrated metagenomic-metabolomic analysis highlighted IPA as an important contributor to influenza outcomes and a potential biomarker of disease severity.

Diving into the proteomic atlas of SARS-CoV-2 infected cells.

The COVID-19 pandemic was initiated by the rapid spread of a SARS-CoV-2 strain. Though mainly classified as a respiratory disease, SARS-CoV-2 infects multiple tissues throughout the human body, leading to a wide range of symptoms in patients. To better understand how SARS-CoV-2 affects the proteome from cells with different ontologies, this work generated an infectome atlas of 9 cell models, including cells from brain, blood, digestive system, and adipocyte tissue. Our data shows that SARS-CoV-2 infection mainly trigger dysregulations on proteins related to cellular structure and energy metabolism. Despite these pivotal processes, heterogeneity of infection was also observed, highlighting many proteins and pathways uniquely dysregulated in one cell type or ontological group. These data have been made searchable online via a tool that will permit future submissions of proteomic data ( https://reisdeoliveira.shinyapps.io/Infectome_App/ ) to enrich and expand this knowledgebase.

Inulin prebiotic ameliorates type 1 diabetes dictating regulatory T cell homing via CCR4 to pancreatic islets and butyrogenic gut microbiota in murine model.

Gut dysbiosis is linked to type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D). Inulin (INU), a prebiotic, modulates the gut microbiota, promoting beneficial bacteria that produce essential short-chain fatty acids for immune regulation. However, how INU affects T1D remains uncertain. Using a streptozotocin-induced (STZ) mouse model, we studied INU's protective effects. Remarkably, STZ + INU mice resisted T1D, with none developing the disease. They had lower blood glucose, reduced pancreatic inflammation, and normalized serum insulin compared with STZ + SD mice. STZ + INU mice also had enhanced mucus production, abundant Bifidobacterium, Clostridium cluster IV, Akkermansia muciniphila, and increased fecal butyrate. In cecal lymph nodes, we observed fewer CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells expressing CCR4 and more Foxp3+CCR4+ cells in pancreatic islets, with higher CCL17 expression. This phenotype was absent in CCR4-deficient mice on INU. INU supplementation effectively protects against experimental T1D by recruiting CCR4+ regulatory T cells via CCL17 into the pancreas and altering the butyrate-producing microbiota.

Eicosapentaenoic acid-rich oil supplementation activates PPAR-γ and delays skin wound healing in type 1 diabetic mice.

Delayed wound healing is a devastating complication of diabetes and supplementation with fish oil, a source of anti-inflammatory omega-3 (ω-3) fatty acids including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), seems an appealing treatment strategy. However, some studies have shown that ω-3 fatty acids may have a deleterious effect on skin repair and the effects of oral administration of EPA on wound healing in diabetes are unclear. We used streptozotocin-induced diabetes as a mouse model to investigate the effects of oral administration of an EPA-rich oil on wound closure and quality of new tissue formed. Gas chromatography analysis of serum and skin showed that EPA-rich oil increased the incorporation of ω-3 and decreased ω-6 fatty acids, resulting in reduction of the ω-6/ω-3 ratio. On the tenth day after wounding, EPA increased production of IL-10 by neutrophils in the wound, reduced collagen deposition, and ultimately delayed wound closure and impaired quality of the healed tissue. This effect was PPAR-γ-dependent. EPA and IL-10 reduced collagen production by fibroblasts in vitro. In vivo, topical PPAR-γ-blockade reversed the deleterious effects of EPA on wound closure and on collagen organization in diabetic mice. We also observed a reduction in IL-10 production by neutrophils in diabetic mice treated topically with the PPAR-γ blocker. These results show that oral supplementation with EPA-rich oil impairs skin wound healing in diabetes, acting on inflammatory and non-inflammatory cells.

Inulin diet uncovers complex diet-microbiota-immune cell interactions remodeling the gut epithelium.

BACKGROUND: The continuous proliferation of intestinal stem cells followed by their tightly regulated differentiation to epithelial cells is essential for the maintenance of the gut epithelial barrier and its functions. How these processes are tuned by diet and gut microbiome is an important, but poorly understood question. Dietary soluble fibers, such as inulin, are known for their ability to impact the gut bacterial community and gut epithelium, and their consumption has been usually associated with health improvement in mice and humans. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that inulin consumption modifies the composition of colonic bacteria and this impacts intestinal stem cells functions, thus affecting the epithelial structure. METHODS: Mice were fed with a diet containing 5% of the insoluble fiber cellulose or the same diet enriched with an additional 10% of inulin. Using a combination of histochemistry, host cell transcriptomics, 16S microbiome analysis, germ-free, gnotobiotic, and genetically modified mouse models, we analyzed the impact of inulin intake on the colonic epithelium, intestinal bacteria, and the local immune compartment. RESULTS: We show that the consumption of inulin diet alters the colon epithelium by increasing the proliferation of intestinal stem cells, leading to deeper crypts and longer colons. This effect was dependent on the inulin-altered gut microbiota, as no modulations were observed in animals deprived of microbiota, nor in mice fed cellulose-enriched diets. We also describe the pivotal role of γδ T lymphocytes and IL-22 in this microenvironment, as the inulin diet failed to induce epithelium remodeling in mice lacking this T cell population or cytokine, highlighting their importance in the diet-microbiota-epithelium-immune system crosstalk. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that the intake of inulin affects the activity of intestinal stem cells and drives a homeostatic remodeling of the colon epithelium, an effect that requires the gut microbiota, γδ T cells, and the presence of IL-22. Our study indicates complex cross kingdom and cross cell type interactions involved in the adaptation of the colon epithelium to the luminal environment in steady state. Video Abstract.

Post-fast refeeding enhances intestinal stem cell-mediated regeneration and tumourigenesis through mTORC1-dependent polyamine synthesis.

For more than a century, fasting regimens have improved health, lifespan, and tissue regeneration in diverse organisms, including humans. However, how fasting and post-fast refeeding impact adult stem cells and tumour formation has yet to be explored in depth. Here, we demonstrate that post-fast refeeding increases intestinal stem cell (ISC) proliferation and tumour formation: Post-fast refeeding augments the regenerative capacity of Lgr5+ intestinal stem cells (ISCs), and loss of the tumour suppressor Apc in ISCs under post-fast refeeding leads to a higher tumour incidence in the small intestine and colon than in the fasted or ad libitum (AL) fed states. This demonstrates that post-fast refeeding is a distinct state. Mechanistically, we discovered that robust induction of mTORC1 in post-fast-refed ISCs increases protein synthesis via polyamine metabolism to drive these changes, as inhibition of mTORC1, polyamine metabolite production, or protein synthesis abrogates the regenerative or tumourigenic effects of post-fast refeeding. Thus, fast-refeeding cycles must be carefully considered when planning diet-based strategies for regeneration without increasing cancer risk, as post-fast refeeding leads to a burst not only in stem cell-driven regeneration but also in tumourigenicity.

Butyrate: Connecting the gut-lung axis to the management of pulmonary disorders.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are metabolites released by bacterial components of the microbiota. These molecules have a wide range of effects in the microbiota itself, but also in host cells in which they are known for contributing to the regulation of cell metabolism, barrier function, and immunological responses. Recent studies indicate that these molecules are important players in the gut-lung axis and highlight the possibility of using strategies that alter their intestinal production to prevent or treat distinct lung inflammatory diseases. Here, we review the effects of the SCFA butyrate and its derivatives in vitro and in vivo on murine models of respiratory disorders, besides discussing the potential therapeutic use of butyrate and the other SCFAs in lung diseases.

Leukocyte metabolism in obese type 2 diabetic individuals associated with COVID-19 severity.

Recent studies show that the metabolic characteristics of different leukocytes, such as, lymphocytes, neutrophils, and macrophages, undergo changes both in the face of infection with SARS-CoV-2 and in obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) condition. Thus, the objective of this review is to establish a correlation between the metabolic changes caused in leukocytes in DM2 and obesity that may favor a worse prognosis during SARS-Cov-2 infection. Chronic inflammation and hyperglycemia, specific and usual characteristics of obesity and DM2, contributes for the SARS-CoV-2 replication and metabolic disturbances in different leukocytes, favoring the proinflammatory response of these cells. Thus, obesity and DM2 are important risk factors for pro-inflammatory response and metabolic dysregulation that can favor the occurrence of the cytokine storm, implicated in the severity and high mortality risk of the COVID-19 in these patients.

Reduced intestinal butyrate availability is associated with the vascular remodeling in resistance arteries of hypertensive rats.

During hypertension an unbalance of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) production by intestinal bacteria is described. However, no data evaluate the association of SCFAs and vascular remodeling in hypertension, which is an important hallmark of this disease. Thus, the present study aims to evaluate the correlations between SCFAs availability and the resistance arteries remodeling in hypertension, as well as to identify the possible pathway by which the SCFAs could exert a structural and mechanical influence. Hence, male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and normotensive Wistar rats had blood pressure measured by tail-cuff plethysmography; fecal SCFAs content assessed by gas chromatography; gene expression of SCFAs-transporters in gut epithelium and SCFAs-sensing receptors on mesenteric resistance arteries (MRA) quantified by PCR; and MRA structural and mechanical parameters analyzed by pressure myograph. Reduced butyrate fecal content was found in SHR, with no changes in propionate and acetate, as well as decreased mRNA levels of SCFAs-transporters (MCT1, MCT4, and SMCT1) in the intestinal epithelium. In addition, lower gene expression of SCFAs-sensing receptors (GPR41, GPR43, and GPR109a, but not Olfr78) was identified in MRAs of SHR, which also shows inward eutrophic remodeling with stiffness. Butyrate content presented a negative correlation with systolic blood pressure and with the structural alterations found on MRAs, while a positive correlation between butyrate content and mechanical parameters was detected. Altogether the present study suggests that lower butyrate content due to ineffective SCFA bioavailability, associated with lower SCFAs-sensing receptors expression, could favor MRA remodeling, increasing peripheral vascular resistance and worsening hypertension prognosis.

SARS-CoV-2 infects adipose tissue in a fat depot- and viral lineage-dependent manner.

Visceral adiposity is a risk factor for severe COVID-19, and a link between adipose tissue infection and disease progression has been proposed. Here we demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 infects human adipose tissue and undergoes productive infection in fat cells. However, susceptibility to infection and the cellular response depends on the anatomical origin of the cells and the viral lineage. Visceral fat cells express more ACE2 and are more susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection than their subcutaneous counterparts. SARS-CoV-2 infection leads to inhibition of lipolysis in subcutaneous fat cells, while in visceral fat cells, it results in higher expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Viral load and cellular response are attenuated when visceral fat cells are infected with the SARS-CoV-2 gamma variant. A similar degree of cell death occurs 4-days after SARS-CoV-2 infection, regardless of the cell origin or viral lineage. Hence, SARS-CoV-2 infects human fat cells, replicating and altering cell function and viability in a depot- and viral lineage-dependent fashion.

Impact of Microbiota Depletion by Antibiotics on SARS-CoV-2 Infection of K18-hACE2 Mice.

Clinical and experimental data indicate that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-2 infection is associated with significant changes in the composition and function of intestinal microbiota. However, the relevance of these effects for SARS-CoV-2 pathophysiology is unknown. In this study, we analyzed the impact of microbiota depletion after antibiotic treatment on the clinical and immunological responses of K18-hACE2 mice to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Mice were treated with a combination of antibiotics (kanamycin, gentamicin, metronidazole, vancomycin, and colistin, Abx) for 3 days, and 24 h later, they were infected with SARS-CoV-2 B lineage. Here, we show that more than 80% of mice succumbed to infection by day 11 post-infection. Treatment with Abx had no impact on mortality. However, Abx-treated mice presented better clinical symptoms, with similar weight loss between infected-treated and non-treated groups. We observed no differences in lung and colon histopathological scores or lung, colon, heart, brain and kidney viral load between groups on day 5 of infection. Despite some minor differences in the expression of antiviral and inflammatory markers in the lungs and colon, no robust change was observed in Abx-treated mice. Together, these findings indicate that microbiota depletion has no impact on SARS-CoV-2 infection in mice.

Neutrophil-Derived COX-2 has a Key Role during Inflammatory Hyperalgesia.

Inflammation is a vital process for the injured tissue restoration and one of its hallmarks is inflammatory hyperalgesia. The cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway is strongly related to the inflammatory and painful process. Usually, the COX-1 isoform is described as homeostatic, while COX-2 is characterized as inducible in inflammatory conditions. Although it is well known that neutrophil cells are the first to arrive at the inflamed site and the major source of COX-2 is still unknown, the specific role of neutrophil-derived COX-2 in the pain process is. Thus, in the present study, we demonstrate for the first time that neutrophil-derived COX-2 plays a key role in peripheral inflammatory hyperalgesia. Conditional knockout mice for COX-2 in neutrophils (COX-2 fl/fl: Mrp8cre±) exhibited higher pain sensitivity after carrageenan (CG) injection and long-lasting IL-1ß-induced hyperalgesia compared with the control group (COX-2 fl/fl). Also, CG-induced inflammation in COX-2 fl/fl: Mrp8cre± mice showed COX-1 overexpression, and increased neutrophil migration and pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-1ß and CXCL1). These findings revealed that neutrophil COX-2 has an important role in the regulation of inflammatory hyperalgesia.

STING is an intrinsic checkpoint inhibitor that restrains the TH17 cell pathogenic program.

External and intrinsic factors regulate the transcriptional profile of T helper 17 (TH17) cells, thereby affecting their pathogenic potential and revealing their context-dependent plasticity. The stimulator of interferon genes (STING), a component of the intracellular DNA-sensing pathway, triggers immune responses but remains largely unexplored in T cells. Here, we describe an intrinsic role of STING in limiting the TH17 cell pathogenic program. We demonstrate that non-pathogenic TH17 cells express higher levels of STING than those activated under pathogenic conditions. Activation of STING induces interleukin-10 (IL-10) production in TH17 cells, decreasing IL-17A and IL-23R expression in a type I interferon (IFN)-independent manner. Mechanistically, STING-induced IL-10 production partially requires aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) signaling, while the decrease of IL-17A expression occurs due to a reduction of Rorγt transcriptional activity. Our findings reveal a regulatory function of STING in the TH17 cell activation program, proposing it as a valuable target to limit TH17-cell-mediated inflammation.

Probiotic Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis consumption slows down orthodontic tooth movement in mice.

INTRODUCTION: Probiotics are live microorganisms that, when consumed in appropriate amount, can provide health benefits. Although many studies have shown positive results with the use of probiotics in bone loss control, as in periodontal disease, the effect of probiotics on a mechanical force-induced alveolar bone resorption is still unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the impact of the specific probiotic Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis on bone remodeling induced by orthodontic tooth movement. METHODS: For this study, thirty C57BL6/J male mice were used and divided into two groups: 1- Mice were orally treated with the probiotic; 2- Mice were treated with vehicle. All mice were submitted to the experimental model of orthodontic tooth movement (OTM). Bone parameters and OTM was evaluated by MicroCT. OTM and TRAP positive cells were analyzed by histomorphometric analysis. Osteoclasts markers were evaluated by qPCR and short chain fatty acids were measured in feces. RESULTS: Micro-CT analysis showed that probiotic treatment did not modify the alveolar bone parameters. However, supplementation with probiotics restrained the tooth movement, as demonstrated by the reduced distance of OTM. Probiotic-treated mice presented down-regulation of Trap expression and reduced osteoclast numbers compared to the control. Accordingly, probiotics supplemented mice exhibited a higher concentration of short-chain fatty acid in their feces. CONCLUSIONS: The supplementation with Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis impaired tooth movement without altering the alveolar bone microarchitecture. The effect on bone remodeling induced by Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis may be associated with the short-chain fatty acids' production.

Gas6 drives Zika virus-induced neurological complications in humans and congenital syndrome in immunocompetent mice.

Zika virus (ZIKV) has the ability to cross placental and brain barriers, causing congenital malformations in neonates and neurological disorders in adults. However, the pathogenic mechanisms of ZIKV-induced neurological complications in adults and congenital malformations are still not fully understood. Gas6 is a soluble TAM receptor ligand able to promote flavivirus internalization and downregulation of immune responses. Here we demonstrate that there is a correlation between ZIKV neurological complications with higher Gas6 levels and the downregulation of genes associated with anti-viral response, as type I IFN due to Socs1 upregulation. Also, Gas6 gamma-carboxylation is essential for ZIKV invasion and replication in monocytes, the main source of this protein, which was inhibited by warfarin. Conversely, Gas6 facilitates ZIKV replication in adult immunocompetent mice and enabled susceptibility to transplacental infection. Our data indicate that ZIKV promotes the upregulation of its ligand Gas6, which contributes to viral infectivity and drives the development of severe adverse outcomes during ZIKV infection.

Intestinal Microbiota in the SARS-CoV-2 Infection: What Is Known?

The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiological agent of COVID-19, emerged last year in China and quickly spread to millions of people around the world. This virus infects cells in different tissues and causes pulmonary (e.g., pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome), neurological, cardiovascular, and intestinal manifestations, which can be the result of a direct viral effect or secondary to endothelial, thrombotic, or immunological alterations. In this chapter, we discuss recent studies which highlighted the relevance of the intestinal microbiota for other infectious respiratory diseases. We present the "altered microbiota" (dysbiotic) as a point of connection between conditions that are risk factors for the development of severe forms of COVID-19. In addition, we describe the findings of recent studies reporting alterations of microbiota composition in COVID-19 patients and speculate on how this may impact in development of the disease.

Kinetics of peripheral blood neutrophils in severe coronavirus disease 2019.

OBJECTIVES: Emerging evidence of dysregulation of the myeloid cell compartment urges investigations on neutrophil characteristics in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We isolated neutrophils from the blood of COVID-19 patients receiving general ward care and from patients hospitalised at intensive care units (ICUs) to explore the kinetics of circulating neutrophils and factors important for neutrophil migration and activation. METHODS: Multicolour flow cytometry was exploited for the analysis of neutrophil differentiation and activation markers. Multiplex and ELISA technologies were used for the quantification of protease, protease inhibitor, chemokine and cytokine concentrations in plasma. Neutrophil polarisation responses were evaluated microscopically. Gelatinolytic and metalloproteinase activity in plasma was determined using a fluorogenic substrate. Co-culturing healthy donor neutrophils with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) allowed us to investigate viral replication in neutrophils. RESULTS: Upon ICU admission, patients displayed high plasma concentrations of granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and the chemokine CXCL8, accompanied by emergency myelopoiesis as illustrated by high levels of circulating CD10-, immature neutrophils with reduced CXCR2 and C5aR expression. Neutrophil elastase and non-metalloproteinase-derived gelatinolytic activity were increased in plasma from ICU patients. Significantly higher levels of circulating tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1) in patients at ICU admission yielded decreased total MMP proteolytic activity in blood. COVID-19 neutrophils were hyper-responsive to CXCL8 and CXCL12 in shape change assays. Finally, SARS-CoV-2 failed to replicate inside human neutrophils. CONCLUSION: Our study provides detailed insights into the kinetics of neutrophil phenotype and function in severe COVID-19 patients, and supports the concept of an increased neutrophil activation state in the circulation.