Phylogenomic analyses using a new 1013-gene Vitaceae bait-set support major groups of North American Vitis.

A set of newly designed Vitaceae baits targeting 1013 genes was employed to explore phylogenetic relationships among North American Vitis. Eurasian Vitis taxa including Vitis vinifera were found to be nested within North American Vitis subgenus Vitis. North American Vitis subgenus Vitis can be placed into nine main groups: the Monticola group, the Occidentales group, the Californica group, the Vinifera group (introduced from Eurasia), the Mustangensis group, the Palmata group, the Aestivalis group, the Labrusca group, and the Cinerea group. Strong cytonuclear discordances were detected in North American Vitis, with many species non-monophyletic in the plastid phylogeny, while monophyletic in the nuclear phylogeny. The phylogenomic analyses support recognizing four distinct species in the Vitis cinerea complex in North America: V. cinerea, V. baileyana, V. berlandieri, and V. simpsonii. Such treatment will better serve the conservation of wild Vitis diversity in North America. Yet the evolutionary history of Vitis is highly complex, with the concordance analyses indicating conflicting signals across the phylogeny. Cytonuclear discordances and Analyses using the Species Networks applying Quartets (SNaQ) method support extensive hybridizations in North American Vitis. The results further indicate that plastid genomes alone are insufficient for resolving the evolutionary history of plant groups that have undergone rampant hybridization, like the case in North American Vitis. Nuclear gene data are essential for species delimitation, identification and reconstructing evolutionary relationships; therefore, they are imperative for plant phylogenomic studies.

Genetic diversity and population structure among native, naturalized, and invasive populations of the common yellow monkeyflower, Mimulus guttatus (Phrymaceae).

An ongoing controversy in invasion biology is the prevalence of colonizing plant populations that are able to establish and spread, while maintaining limited amounts of genetic variation. Invasive populations can be established through several routes including from a single source or from multiple introductions. The aim of this study was to examine genetic diversity in populations of Mimulus guttatus in the United Kingdom, where the species is considered invasive, and compare this diversity to that in native populations on the west coast of North America. Additionally, we looked at diversity in non-native populations that have not yet become invasive (naturalized populations) in eastern North America. We investigated population structure among populations in these three regions and attempted to uncover the sources for populations that have established in the naturalized and invasive regions. We found that genetic diversity was, on average, relatively high in populations from the invasive UK region and comparable to native populations. Contrastingly, two naturalized M. guttatus populations were low in both genetic and genotypic diversity, indicating a history of asexual reproduction and self-fertilization. A third naturalized population was found to be a polyploid Mimulus hybrid of unknown origin. Our results demonstrate that M. guttatus has likely achieved colonization success outside of its native western North America distribution by a variety of establishment pathways, including those with genetic and demographic benefits resulting from multiple introductions in the UK, reproductive assurance through selfing, and asexual reproduction in eastern North America, and possible polyploidization in one Canadian population.

Homoploid hybrids, allopolyploids, and high ploidy levels characterize the evolutionary history of a western North American quillwort (Isoëtes) complex.

Polyploidy and hybridization are important processes in seed-free plant evolution. However, a major gap lies in our understanding of how these processes affect the evolutionary history of high-ploidy systems. The heterosporous lycophyte genus Isoëtes is a lineage with many putative hybrids and high-level polyploid taxa (ranging from tetraploid to dodecaploid). Here, we use a complex of western North American Isoëtes, to understand the role of hybridization and high-level polyploidy in generating and maintaining novel diversity. To uncover these processes, we use restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (RADseq), multiple alleles of a single low-copy nuclear marker, whole plastomes, cytology (genome size estimates and chromosome counts), and reproductive status (fertile or sterile). With this dataset, we show that hybridization occurs easily between species in this complex and is bidirectional between identical, but not different, cytotypes. Furthermore, we show that fertile allopolyploids appear to have formed repeatedly from sterile homoploid and interploid hybrids. We propose that low prezygotic reproductive barriers and a high frequency of whole-genome duplication allow for high-level polyploid systems to generate novel lineages, and that these mechanisms may be important in shaping extant Isoëtes diversity.

Phylogenomic relationships and character evolution of the grape family (Vitaceae).

The grape family consists of 16 genera and ca. 950 species. It is best known for the economically important fruit crop - the grape Vitis vinifera. The deep phylogenetic relationships and character evolution of the grape family have attracted the attention of researchers in recent years. We herein reconstruct the phylogenomic relationships within Vitaceae using nuclear and plastid genes based on the Hyb-Seq approach and test the newly proposed classification system of the family. The five tribes of the grape family, including Ampelopsideae, Cayratieae, Cisseae, Parthenocisseae, and Viteae, are each robustly supported by both nuclear and chloroplast genomic data and the backbone relationships are congruent with previous reports. The cupular floral disc (raised above and free from ovary at the upper part) is an ancestral state of Vitaceae, with the inconspicuous floral disc as derived in the tribe Parthenocisseae, and the state of adnate to the ovary as derived in the tribe Viteae. The 5-merous floral pattern was inferred to be the ancestral in Vitaceae, with the 4-merous flowers evolved at least two times in the family. The compound dichasial cyme (cymose with two secondary axes) is ancestral in Vitaceae and the thyrse inflorescence (a combination of racemose and cymose branching) in tribe Viteae is derived. The ribbon-like trichome only evolved once in Vitaceae, as a synapomorphy for the tribe Viteae.

Synthesis of Nuclear and Chloroplast Data Combined With Network Analyses Supports the Polyploid Origin of the Apple Tribe and the Hybrid Origin of the Maleae-Gillenieae Clade.

Plant biologists have debated the evolutionary origin of the apple tribe (Maleae; Rosaceae) for over a century. The "wide-hybridization hypothesis" posits that the pome-bearing members of Maleae (base chromosome number x = 17) resulted from a hybridization and/or allopolyploid event between progenitors of other tribes in the subfamily Amygdaloideae with x = 8 and x = 9, respectively. An alternative "spiraeoid hypothesis" proposed that the x = 17 of Maleae arose via the genome doubling of x = 9 ancestors to x = 18, and subsequent aneuploidy resulting in x = 17. We use publicly available genomic data-448 nuclear genes and complete plastomes-from 27 species representing all major tribes within the Amygdaloideae to investigate evolutionary relationships within the subfamily containing the apple tribe. Specifically, we use network analyses and multi-labeled trees to test the competing wide-hybridization and spiraeoid hypotheses. Hybridization occurred between an ancestor of the tribe Spiraeeae (x = 9) and an ancestor of the clade Sorbarieae (x = 9) + Exochordeae (x = 8) + Kerrieae (x = 9), giving rise to the clade Gillenieae (x = 9) + Maleae (x = 17). The ancestor of the Maleae + Gillenieae arose via hybridization between distantly related tribes in the Amygdaloideae (i.e., supporting the wide hybridization hypothesis). However, some evidence supports an aspect of the spiraeoid hypothesis-the ancestors involved in the hybridization event were likely both x = 9, so genome doubling was followed by aneuploidy to result in x = 17 observed in Maleae. By synthesizing existing genomic data with novel analyses, we resolve the nearly century-old mystery regarding the origin of the apple tribe. Our results also indicate that nuclear gene tree-species tree conflict and/or cytonuclear conflict are pervasive at several other nodes in subfamily Amygdaloideae of Rosaceae.

Nuclear and Chloroplast Sequences Resolve the Enigmatic Origin of the Concord Grape.

Despite the commercial importance of the Concord grape, its origin has remained unresolved for over 150 years without a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis. In this study we aimed to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the Concord grape using sequence data from four nuclear markers (AT103, GAI1, PHYA, and SQD1), six plastid markers (matK, psbA-trnH, petN-trnC, ycf1, trnL-F, and trnS-G), and the plastid genome. We sampled extensively the Vitis species native to northeastern North America as well as representative species from Europe and Asia, including the commercially important Vitis vinifera (wine grape), a native European species with hermaphroditic flowers, and its wild progenitor, V. vinifera subsp. sylvestris. We also sequenced the plastid genome of one accession of the Concord grape and compared the plastid genome data to the recently published data set of Vitis plastomes. Phylogenetic analyses of the plastid and nuclear data using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference support the hybrid origin of the Concord grape. The results clearly pinpoint the wine grape, V. vinifera, as the maternal donor and the fox grape, Vitis labrusca, which is common in northeastern North America, as the paternal donor. Moreover, we infer that the breeding history of the Concord grape must have involved the backcrossing of the F1 hybrid with the paternal parent V. labrusca. This backcrossing also explains the higher morphological similarity of the Concord grape to V. labrusca than to V. vinifera. This study provides concrete genetic evidence for the hybrid origin of a widespread Vitis cultivar and is, therefore, promising for similar future studies focused on resolving ambiguous origins of major crops or to create successful hybrid fruit crops.

Variable and sexually conflicting selection on Silene stellata floral traits by a putative moth pollinator selective agent.

Conflicting selection is an important evolutionary mechanism because it impedes directional evolution and helps to maintain phenotypic variation. It can arise when mutualistic and antagonistic selective agents exert opposing selection on the same trait and when distinct phenotypic optima are favored by different fitness components. In this study, we test for conflicting selection through different sexual functions of the hermaphroditic plant, Silene stellata during its early and late flowering season. We find selection is consistently stronger during the early flowering season, which aligns with the activity peak of the pollinating seed predator Hadena ectypa. Importantly, we observe sex-specific selection on petal dimensions to have opposite signs. We propose that the observed sexually conflicting selection on petal design results from the negative selection through female function for the avoidance of oviposition and the subsequent fruit predation by H. ectypa larvae and the positive selection through male function for pollen export by H. ectypa adults. The Silene-Hadena interaction has previously been considered to be largely parasitic. Our findings suggest a trade-off mechanism that could thwart the evolution of an "escape route" from the nocturnal pollination syndrome by Silene spp. and contribute to the long-term maintenance of the Silene-Hadena system.

Transcriptome analysis of the curry tree (Bergera koenigii L., Rutaceae) during leaf development.

The curry tree (Bergera koenigii L.) is a widely cultivated plant used in South Asian cooking. Next-generation sequencing was used to generate the transcriptome of the curry leaf to detect changes in gene expression during leaf development, such as those genes involved in the production of oils which lend the leaf its characteristic taste, aroma, and medicinal properties. Using abundance estimation (RSEM) and differential expression analysis, genes that were significantly differentially expressed were identified. The transcriptome was annotated with BLASTx using the non-redundant (nr) protein database, and Gene Ontology (GO) terms were assigned based on the top BLAST hit using Blast2GO. Lastly, functional enrichment of the assigned GO terms was analyzed for genes that were significantly differentially expressed. Of the most enriched GO categories, pathways involved in cell wall, membrane, and lignin synthesis were found to be most upregulated in immature leaf tissue, possibly due to the growth and expansion of the leaf tissue. Terpene synthases, which synthesize monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, which comprise much of the curry essential oil, were found to be significantly upregulated in mature leaf tissue, suggesting that oil production increases later in leaf development. Enzymes involved in pigment production were also significantly upregulated in mature leaves. The findings were based on computational estimates of gene expression from RNA-seq data, and further study is warranted to validate these results using targeted techniques, such as quantitative PCR.

Characterization of the mating system of a native perennial tetraploid herb, Silene stellata.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Nursery pollination systems can range from obligate to facultative. In a system where generalists provide substantial pollination service, an important question is whether the cost of seed predation outweighs the benefit provided by the nursery pollinator to cause the plant to evolve toward more generalized pollination. Using a facultative system native to North America, we tested whether nursery pollinator vs. strictly mutualistic generalists affect mating-system parameters of the host plant and explored the implications for long-term coevolution. METHODS: We used paternity analyses with 11 microsatellite markers to characterize the mating system of Silene stellata when pollination service is primarily through the nursery pollinator Hadena ectypa and generalist moths. KEY RESULTS: Our experimental population of S. stellata was predominantly outcrossing (average outcrossing rate t = 0.83), and mating-system parameters were similar between pollinator groups. We detected significant correlations in both selfing and outcrossed paternity at the fruit and maternal family level, corresponding to limited pollen dispersal (mean = 3.9 m). Among individuals, variation in anther-stigma separation was positively associated with outcrossing rate, which suggests the importance of herkogamy in preventing selfing. CONCLUSIONS: Correlated paternity suggests that seeds from the same fruit and/or plants are sired by a limited number of pollen donors, resulting from low pollen dispersal and potential male-male competition. The similar mating-system parameters of the two pollinator groups suggest that selection for higher outcrossing in S. stellata is likely to be through floral design rather than through increased pollinator specialization with H. ectypa.

Low-copy nuclear markers in Isoëtes (Isoëtaceae) identified with transcriptomes.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Few genetic markers provide phylogenetic information in closely related species of Isoëtes (Isoëtaceae). We describe the development of primers for several putative low-copy nuclear markers to resolve the phylogeny of Isoëtes, particularly in the southeastern United States. METHODS AND RESULTS: We identified regions of interest in Isoëtes transcriptomes based on low-copy genes in other plants. Primers were designed for these regions and tested with 16 taxa of Isoëtes and one species of Lycopodium. Parts of the pgiC, gapC, and IBR3 gene regions show phylogenetic signal within the North American and Mediterranean clades of Isoëtes. CONCLUSIONS: Transcriptome data prove useful for identification and primer design of low-copy genes. Three new markers show potential for inferring phylogenies in regional clades of Isoëtes, and possibly across the entire genus.

Comparison of population genetic structures of the plant Silene stellata and its obligate pollinating seed predator moth Hadena ectypa.

Background and Aims: Population genetic structures and patterns of gene flow of interacting species provide important insights into the spatial scale of their interactions and the potential for local co-adaptation. We analysed the genetic structures of the plant Silene stellata and the nocturnal moth Hadena ectypa. Hadena ectypa acts as one of the important pollinators of S. stellata as well as being an obligate seed parasite on the plant. Although H. ectypa provides a substantial pollination service to S. stellata, this system is largely considered parasitic due to the severe seed predation by the Hadena larvae. Previous research on this system has found variable interaction outcomes across space, indicating the potential for a geographical selection mosaic. Methods: Using 11 microsatellite markers for S. stellata and nine markers for H. ectypa, we analysed the population genetic structure and the patterns and intensity of gene flow within and among three local populations in the Appalachians. Key Results: We found no spatial genetic structure in the moth populations, while significant differentiation was detected among the local plant populations. Additionally, we observed that gene flow rates among H. ectypa populations were more uniform and that the mean gene flow rate in H. ectypa was twice as large as that in S. stellata. Conclusions: Our results suggest that although the moths move frequently among populations, long-distance pollen carryover only happens occasionally. The difference in gene flow rates between S. stellata and H. ectypa could prevent strict local co-adaptation. Furthermore, higher gene flow rates in H. ectypa could also increase resistance of the local S. stellata populations to the parasitic effect of H. ectypa and therefore help to stabilize the Silene-Hadena interaction dynamics.

Phylogeography and conservation genetics of the rare and relict Bretschneidera sinensis (Akaniaceae).

Bretschneidera sinensis, a class-I protected wild plant in China, is a relic of the ancient Tertiary tropical flora endemic to Asia. However, little is known about its genetics and phylogeography. To elucidate the current phylogeographic patterns and infer the historical population dynamics of B. sinensis, and to make recommendations for its conservation, three non-coding regions of chloroplast DNA (trnQ-rps16, rps8-rps11, and trnT-trnL) were amplified and sequenced across 256 individuals from 23 populations of B. sinensis, spanning 10 provinces of China. We recognized 13 haplotypes, demonstrating relatively high total haplotype diversity (hT = 0.739). Almost all of the variation existed among populations (98.09%, P < 0.001), but that within populations was low (1.91%, P < 0.001). Strong genetic differentiation was detected among populations (GST = 0.855, P < 0.001) with limited estimations of seed flow (Nm = 0.09), indicating that populations were strongly isolated from one another. According to SAMOVA analysis, populations of B. sinensis in China could be divided into five geographic groups: (1) eastern Yunnan to western Guangxi; (2) Guizhou-Hunan-Hubei; (3) central Guangdong; (4) northwestern Guangdong; and (5) the Luoxiao-Nanling-Wuyi -Yangming Mountain. Network analysis showed that the most ancestral haplotypes were located in the first group, i.e., the eastern Yungui Plateau and in eastern Yunnan, which is regarded as a putative glacial refugia for B. sinensis in China. B. sinensis may have expanded its range eastward from these refugia and experienced bottleneck or founder effects in southeastern China. Populations in Liping (Guizhou Province), Longsheng (Guangxi Province), Huizhou (Guangdong Province), Chongyi (Jiangxi Province), Dong-an (Hunan Province), Pingbian (Yunnan Province) and Xinning (Hunan Province) are proposed as the priority protection units.

Herbarium collection-based phylogenetics of the ragweeds (Ambrosia, Asteraceae).

Ambrosia (Asteraceae) is a taxonomically difficult genus of weedy, wind-pollinated plants with an apparent center of diversity in the Sonoran Desert of North America. Determining Ambrosia's evolutionary relationships has been the subject of much interest, with numerous studies using morphological characters, cytology, comparative phytochemistry, and chloroplast restriction site variation to produce conflicting accounts the relationships between Ambrosia species, as well as the classification of their close relatives in Franseria and Hymenoclea. To resolve undetermined intra-generic relationships within Ambrosia, we used DNA extracted from tissues obtained from seed banks and herbarium collections to generate multi-locus genetic data representing nearly all putative species, including four from South America. We performed Bayesian and Maximum-Likelihood phylogenetic analyses of six chloroplast-genome and two nuclear-genome markers, enabling us to infer monophyly for the genus, resolve major infra-generic species clusters, as well as to resolve open questions about the evolutionary relationships of several Ambrosia species and former members of Franseria. We also provide molecular data supporting the hypothesis that A. sandersonii formed through the hybridization of A. eriocentra and A. salsola. The topology of our chloroplast DNA phylogeny is almost entirely congruent with the most recent molecular work based on chloroplast restriction site variation of a much more limited sampling of 14 North American species of Ambrosia, although our improved sampling of global Ambrosia diversity enables us to draw additional conclusions. As our study is the first direct DNA sequence-based phylogenetic analyses of Ambrosia, we analyze the data in relation to previous taxonomic studies and discuss several instances of chloroplast/nuclear incongruence that leave the precise geographic center of origin of Ambrosia in question.

Evaluation and comparison of FTA card and CTAB DNA extraction methods for non-agricultural taxa.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: An efficient, effective DNA extraction method is necessary for comprehensive analysis of plant genomes. This study analyzed the quality of DNA obtained using paper FTA cards prepared directly in the field when compared to the more traditional cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)-based extraction methods from silica-dried samples. METHODS: DNA was extracted using FTA cards according to the manufacturer's protocol. In parallel, CTAB-based extractions were done using the automated AutoGen DNA isolation system. DNA quality for both methods was determined for 15 non-agricultural species collected in situ, by gel separation, spectrophotometry, fluorometry, and successful amplification and sequencing of nuclear and chloroplast gene markers. RESULTS: The FTA card extraction method yielded less concentrated, but also less fragmented samples than the CTAB-based technique. The card-extracted samples provided DNA that could be successfully amplified and sequenced. The FTA cards are also useful because the collected samples do not require refrigeration, extensive laboratory expertise, or as many hazardous chemicals as extractions using the CTAB-based technique. DISCUSSION: The relative success of the FTA card method in our study suggested that this method could be a valuable tool for studies in plant population genetics and conservation biology that may involve screening of hundreds of individual plants. The FTA cards, like the silica gel samples, do not contain plant material capable of propagation, and therefore do not require permits from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) for transportation.

Analysis of whole chloroplast genomes from the genera of the Clauseneae, the curry tribe (Rutaceae, Citrus family).

The Clauseneae (Aurantioideae, Rutaceae) is a tribe in the Citrus family that, although economically important as it contains the culinary and medicinally-useful curry tree (Bergera koenigii), has been relatively understudied. Due to the recent significant taxonomic changes made to this tribe, a closer inspection of the genetic relationships among its genera has been warranted. Whole genome skimming was used to generate chloroplast genomes from six species, representing each of the four genera (Bergera, Clausena, Glycosmis, Micromelum) in the Clauseneae tribe plus one closely related outgroup (Merrillia), using the published plastome sequence of Citrus sinensis as a reference. Phylogenetically informative character (PIC) data were analyzed using a genome alignment of the seven species, and variability frequency among the species was recorded for each coding and non-coding region, with the regions of highest variability identified for future phylogenetic studies. Non-coding regions exhibited a higher percentage of variable characters as expected, and the phylogenetic markers ycf1, matK, rpoC2, ndhF, trnS-trnG spacer, and trnH-psbA spacer proved to be among the most variable regions. Other markers that are frequently used in phylogenetic studies, e.g. rps16, atpB-rbcL, rps4-trnT, and trnL-trnF, proved to be far less variable. Phylogenetic analyses of the aligned sequences were conducted using Bayesian inference (MrBayes) and Maximum Likelihood (RAxML), yielding highly supported divisions among the four genera.

Another look at the phylogenetic position of the grape order Vitales: Chloroplast phylogenomics with an expanded sampling of key lineages.

Vitales is well-known for including the economically important fruit crop, the wine grape (Vitis vinifera). However, the position of the Vitales in the higher eudicots has been a subject of much debate. It has been variously reported to be sister to the Saxifragales and together as sister to the rest of rosids, or sister to the fabids-malvids clade, or sister to the Santalales, or sister to the fabids-malvids-Saxifragales clade. However, in all of these scenarios, the support values for the relationship of Vitales on the phylogenies were only low to moderate. Additionally, all previous studies sampled only Vitis vinifera as the representative of the Vitales. We herein expanded the sampling of the Vitales to include representatives of all major clades of the order, as well as representatives of other key lineages including Saxifragales, Dilleniales, and Santalales. Extensive likelihood and Bayesian analyses were conducted to test the position of Vitales, using different numbers of genes, a variety of partitioning strategies, and both nucleotide and amino acid sequences. With the expanded sampling strategy, almost all analyses supported the relationship of Vitales as sister to Saxifragales. This relationship was supported in a 72-gene data set with a bootstrap value of 91%, the highest support value reported to date. Based on this topology, we discuss possible morphological synapomorphies shared between Vitales and Saxifragales. Furthermore, a hypothesis of reticulate evolution was postulated as an explanation for the incongruence of Vitales' position when comparing plastid and nuclear gene phylogenies.

Development of highly variable microsatellite markers for the tetraploid Silene stellata (Caryophyllaceae).

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: We designed and tested microsatellite markers for the North American native species Silene stellata (Caryophyllaceae) to investigate its population genetic structure and identify selection on floral design through male reproductive success. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 153 candidate microsatellite loci were isolated based on next-generation sequencing. We identified 18 polymorphic microsatellite loci in three populations of S. stellata, with di- or trinucleotide repeats. Genotyping results showed the number of alleles per locus ranged from six to 45 and expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.511 to 0.951. Five of these loci were successfully amplified in S. virginica and S. caroliniana and were also polymorphic. CONCLUSIONS: The microsatellite markers reported here provide a valuable tool for paternity analysis in S. stellata. They will also be useful for investigating the population genetic structures of S. stellata and related species.

The population genomic basis of geographic differentiation in North American common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.).

Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) is an invasive, wind-pollinated plant nearly ubiquitous in disturbed sites in its eastern North American native range and present across growing portions of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia. Phenotypic divergence between European and native-range populations has been described as rapid evolution. However, a recent study demonstrated major human-mediated shifts in ragweed genetic structure before introduction to Europe and suggested that native-range genetic structure and local adaptation might fully explain accelerated growth and other invasive characteristics of introduced populations. Genomic differentiation that potentially influenced this structure has not yet been investigated, and it remains unclear whether substantial admixture during historical disturbance of the native range contributed to the development of invasiveness in introduced European ragweed populations. To investigate fine-scale population genetic structure across the species' native range, we characterized diallelic SNP loci via a reduced-representation genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) approach. We corroborate phylogeographic domains previously discovered using traditional sequencing methods, while demonstrating increased power to resolve weak genetic structure in this highly admixed plant species. By identifying exome polymorphisms underlying genetic differentiation, we suggest that geographic differentiation of this important invasive species has occurred more often within pathways that regulate growth and response to defense and stress, which may be associated with survival in North America's diverse climatic regions.

Congruent Deep Relationships in the Grape Family (Vitaceae) Based on Sequences of Chloroplast Genomes and Mitochondrial Genes via Genome Skimming.

Vitaceae is well-known for having one of the most economically important fruits, i.e., the grape (Vitis vinifera). The deep phylogeny of the grape family was not resolved until a recent phylogenomic analysis of 417 nuclear genes from transcriptome data. However, it has been reported extensively that topologies based on nuclear and organellar genes may be incongruent due to differences in their evolutionary histories. Therefore, it is important to reconstruct a backbone phylogeny of the grape family using plastomes and mitochondrial genes. In this study,next-generation sequencing data sets of 27 species were obtained using genome skimming with total DNAs from silica-gel preserved tissue samples on an Illumina NextSeq 500 instrument [corrected]. Plastomes were assembled using the combination of de novo and reference genome (of V. vinifera) methods. Sixteen mitochondrial genes were also obtained via genome skimming using the reference genome of V. vinifera. Extensive phylogenetic analyses were performed using maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods. The topology based on either plastome data or mitochondrial genes is congruent with the one using hundreds of nuclear genes, indicating that the grape family did not exhibit significant reticulation at the deep level. The results showcase the power of genome skimming in capturing extensive phylogenetic data: especially from chloroplast and mitochondrial DNAs.