Columbiform Pediatrics.

Pigeons have been bred by humans for thousands of years as a source of food and feathers, as messengers, but also for their beauty, and more recently for sport. Pediatric medicine of pigeons has risen in importance given the interest at stake during international competitions. Young pigeons have a unique development and an increased sensitivity to both infectious and nutritional disorders compared with adults. Preventive medicine is of paramount importance and relies on measures targeting parents before breeding and chicks after hatching. Vaccination has been especially studied in pigeons.

Radiographic Measurements of Internal Organs in Rhode Island Red Hybrid Hens (Gallus gallus domesticus) and Their Evolution During Egg Formation.

Backyard poultry hens are becoming very popular as pets, and thus the demand for treating the individual chicken is increasing. Few basic diagnostic techniques commonly used in small animal practice have been evaluated in this species. At the moment, there is no study in backyard hens describing radiographic measurements of internal organs contrary to psittacine birds or birds of prey. Moreover, the effect of egg laying on these measurements has not been studied in avian species even though it could affect radiographic measurements depending on the stage of egg formation. This is of particular concern in laying hens since they are able to lay on a daily basis. Thirteen adult hens and 3 juvenile Rhode Island red hybrid hens (Gallus gallus domesticus) were used to evaluate which organs can be reliably measured and to provide preliminary reference values for clinically healthy chickens. Additionally, whole body radiographs were collected every 2 hours over 24 hours in 5 adult hens to study the evolution of these measurements throughout egg formation. Organs that could be clearly delimitated on radiographs were measured, and the only organs that could be reliably measured were the heart and liver silhouettes. These measurements were significantly higher in adult compared to juvenile hens (P = 0.024). Among the different organ ratios, heart width: total liver width ratio was the only significantly different measurement and was higher in juvenile hens (P = 0.024). Hepatic silhouette measurements and ratios were found to increase over time (P < 0.02) but did not follow the progress of egg mineralization. Eggshell thickness was found to be a promising parameter to evaluate the stage of egg formation, and thus should be taken into account when trying to establish reference intervals for radiographic measurements of internal organs in laying hens.

Effect of Hooding on Physiological Parameters During Manual Restraint in Rhode Island Red Hybrid Hens (Gallus gallus domesticus).

Manual handling of chickens is required for many veterinary, research, and breeding procedures. This study aimed to assess the changes in physiological parameters over time during manual restraint of chickens, as well as the effect of hooding on these parameters. Heart rate, heart rate variability, respiratory rate, and body temperature were measured every 3 minutes for 15 minutes during manual restraint in 13 adult laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Heart rate variability was significantly higher in hooded hens than in nonhooded hens (P= 0.003) but was not significant over time. Hooded hens were also found to have significantly lower heart rate (P = 0.043) and respiratory rate (P = 0.042) compared to nonhooded hens. Heart rate and respiratory rate significantly decreased over time, independent of the use of the hood (P = 0.008; P = 0.01, respectively). Temperature was found to increase significantly (P = 0.001) over time for both groups. Overall, hooding increased heart rate variability, a factor associated with a lower stress level, and decreased heart rate and respiratory rate. In conclusion, these data suggest that the use of the hood reduces stress levels in birds during manual restraint. Therefore, the use of the hood is encouraged for short (less than 15 minutes) painless procedures, such as physical examination or radiographic acquisition.

Visceral Haemoproteus minutus Infection in a Major Mitchell's Cockatoo (Lophochroa leadbeateri).

A 1-year-old major Mitchell's cockatoo (Lophochroa leadbeateri) was presented for evaluation of weakness, diarrhea with undigested seeds in the droppings, and weight loss. Leukocytosis with severe heterophilia, monocytosis, and lymphocytosis was noted on the complete blood count. Altered plasma biochemical parameters included a slight increase in creatine kinase and mild hypoproteinemia. Two blood smears before and after 2 days of treatment revealed mild polychromasia and anisocytosis but no blood parasites. Radiographic and computed tomographic imaging of the cockatoo were helpful in identifying airsacculitis, pneumonia, and gastrointestinal motility disorders. The patient died 5 days after treatment for the presenting clinical problems. On the gross postmortem examination, dark red foci in the ventricular muscle layers and 1-3-mm white foci in the myocardium, opaque air sacs, and dark lungs were identified. Histopathologic examination of submitted tissue samples found severe granulomatous ventriculitis and myocarditis with intralesional Haemoproteus species megalomeronts. Qualitative polymerase chain reaction testing for the cytochrome b (cyt b) gene performed on pooled heart, liver, kidney, and intestinal tissues identified 99.5% homology to Haemoproteus minutus. This case report demonstrates the expansion of the geographic range of H minutus to France and potentially to Belgium, which may compromise breeding and conservation of Australian parrots living outdoors. Challenging diagnosis, rapid disease progression, and the absence of validated treatment protocols for psittacine patients suggest that the use of preventive measures to reduce the presence of insect vectors such as hippoboscid flies and biting midges (Culicoides) should be considered. Haemoproteus minutus should be considered and potentially screened by polymerase chain reaction testing on blood samples, especially in the case of highly susceptible avian species (eg, Australian parrots in Europe) that present with sudden weakness, heterophilic leukocytosis, and monocytosis associated with mild anemia.

Pathogenic Idiopathic Extramedullary Hematopoiesis in a Yellow-Collared Macaw (Primolius auricollis).

1.5-year-old yellow-collared macaw (Primolius auricollis) was presented as a referral case for chronic breathing difficulties and coelomic distension. The bird was in poor body condition, and coelomic distension and green-colored urates were noted during the physical examination. Radiographic images revealed a large coelomic space-occupying soft-tissue lesion that was ultrasonographically confirmed to be hepatomegaly; the liver had a heterogeneous echogenic pattern. An ultrasound-guided fine needle aspirate of the liver was performed. The cytological results revealed immature hematopoietic cells with signs of dyserythropoiesis and were consistent with extramedullary hematopoiesis (EMH). The plasma biochemistry panel revealed a marked increase in aspartate aminotransferase and bile acids, consistent with severe hepatic disease. Following the results of the diagnostic tests, chemotherapy was initiated using hydroxyurea. Two weeks after the initial presentation and treatment, the bird died and a full postmortem examination was performed. Macroscopic examination confirmed severe hepatomegaly and severe splenomegaly. Histopathological examination of tissue samples confirmed severe EMH in the liver and spleen, splenic and renal hemosiderosis, and acute pulmonary congestion. The bone marrow was normal. The final diagnosis was pathogenic idiopathic EMH, and this case was unusual in both its presentation and severity. Extramedullary hematopoiesis is usually related to myeloid proliferative disorder, chronic blood loss, hemolytic disease, or chronic inflammatory disease. Mycobacteriosis and parasitic infection have been reported to be associated with EMH in birds; however, the inflammatory patterns seen in those cases were lacking in this case. Myeloproliferative neoplasia also appears an unlikely disease condition in this case considering that histopathology found normal architecture in the studied bone marrow; however, bone marrow abnormalities in locations other than the one sampled could not be excluded. A short review of homeostatic and pathogenic hematopoiesis in birds is provided to support the likely diagnosis of idiopathic EMH.

Technological Advances in Diagnostic Imaging in Exotic Pet Medicine.

Diagnostic imaging relies on interpretation of interactions between the body tissue and various energies, such as x-rays, ultrasound, and magnetic or nuclear energies, to differentiate normal from abnormal tissues. Major technological improvements regarding emission and detection of the energetic waves, as well as reconstruction and interpretation of the images, have occurred. These advances made possible visualization of smaller structures, quantitative evaluation of functional processes, and development of unique imaging-guided procedures. This article reviews the technological advances that allowed development of cone beam computed tomography, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, and contrast-enhanced ultrasonography, which all could have applications in exotic pet medicine.

Evaluation of blood urea nitrogen concentration and anorexia as predictors of nonsurvival in client-owned rabbits evaluated at a veterinary referral center.

OBJECTIVE To determine the prognostic relevance of BUN concentration in client-owned rabbits evaluated at a veterinary referral center. ANIMALS 246 healthy or clinically ill client-owned rabbits with BUN concentrations measured at a veterinary referral center. PROCEDURES In a retrospective cohort study design, medical records of rabbits were retrieved, and data were collected on BUN concentration (exposure variable of interest) and other variables, including outcome (survival status at 15 days after BUN concentration measurement). Univariate, multivariate, and subgroup analyses were performed to identify variables associated with outcome. RESULTS BUN concentrations ranged from 6.5 to 251.1 mg/dL (median, 18.7 mg/dL). Univariate analysis revealed that the risk of nonsurvival over the 15-day period for rabbits with a high BUN concentration (≥ 23.3 mg/dL) was 33% higher (relative risk, 1.33; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.06 to 1.69) than that for rabbits with unremarkable BUN values. Subgroup analysis revealed that for rabbits with anorexia, a high (vs unremarkable) BUN concentration was associated with an increased risk of nonsurvival (relative risk, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.05 to 2.71). In the final multivariate model that controlled for age, sex, and appetite (anorexia vs no anorexia), the odds of nonsurvival for rabbits with BUN values > 24.74 mg/dL were 3 times that for rabbits with BUN values < 14.00 mg/dL (OR, 2.92; 95% CI, 1.29 to 6.58). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that a high BUN concentration increased the risk of nonsurvival over a 15-day period for client-owned rabbits, particularly those with anorexia. Blood urea nitrogen concentration should be used together with other clinical indicators to provide prognostic information for rabbits receiving veterinary care.

Multiple Infiltrative Intraosseous Lipomas in the Appendicular Skeleton of a Rose-breasted Cockatoo (Eolophus roseicapilla) with a Humeral Fracture.

A 9-year-old female rose-breasted cockatoo (Eolophus roseicapilla) was presented for a humeral fracture. At presentation, the bird was severely lethargic and obese. On physical examination, an open right humeral fracture, healed left ulnar fracture, and intertarsal joint swelling were present. Results of hematologic testing and biochemical analysis revealed severe leukocytosis with heterophilia and increased creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase activities consistent with musculoskeletal lesions. Radiographs confirmed a right humeral fracture and showed severe polyostotic lytic and expansile lesions of the appendicular skeleton, as well as an enlarged hepatic silhouette. Surgical repair of the fracture was attempted, but the bird died during the procedure. Postmortem examination revealed severe bone deformities involving the fractured humerus, both ulnas, and the left tibiotarsus. Histologic findings were consistent with multiple intraosseous lipomas of the long bones and severe hepatic lipidosis. To our knowledge, this is the first report of multiple intraosseous lipomas in a bird.

Comparison of Dorsoventral Erect and Ventrodorsal Supine Radiographic Views for the Evaluation of Intracoelomic Organs in Clinically Normal African Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus).

Standard positioning for radiographic evaluation may require sedation and can be deleterious in critically ill birds. A prospective crossover study was performed in 15 clinically normal African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) to describe an alternative, unrestrained radiographic view. Whole-body radiographs were obtained in unrestrained dorsoventral erect (DVE) views and in anesthetized ventrodorsal supine (VDS) views. Visualization of various anatomic items in each view was scored by 3 observers. The surface area of the air sacs and the width of the heart, liver, thorax, and cardiohepatic waist were measured in DVE and VDS views. Measurements were obtained by 3 observers, and 1 observer repeated the measurements twice. Intraobserver and interobserver agreement were assessed. Major rotation of the coelom and superimposition of the limbs over the coelom were, respectively, observed in 4 of 15 (27%) and 15 of 15 (100%) of the DVE views and not observed in VDS views. The evaluation of the respiratory tract structures was considered limited in DVE views compared with VDS views, and the surface areas of the air sacs were significantly smaller. The proventriculus and ventriculus were more visible in the DVE view. The visualization of the heart was not significantly different between the 2 views. The absolute measures of heart, liver, and cardiohepatic waist width were significantly larger in the DVE view compared with the VDS view. Moderate intraobserver and interobserver agreement was observed in the evaluation of the 2 views. In conclusion, the DVE view could be adequate to assess the heart and the upper digestive tract. This positioning is likely to provide clinically relevant information for cases in which general anesthesia or dorsal recumbency is contraindicated.

Evidence-Based Advances in Ferret Medicine.

This literature review covers approximately 35 years of veterinary medicine. This article develops the current state of knowledge in pet ferret medicine regarding the most common diseases according to evidence-based data and gives insight into further axis of research. Literature review was conducted through identification of keywords (title + ferret) with Web-based database searching. To appreciate the methodological quality and the level of evidence of each article included in the review, full-text versions were reviewed and questions addressed in the articles were formulated. Analysis of the articles' content was performed by the authors, and relevant clinical information was extracted.

Glomerular filtration rate determination by computed tomography in two pet rabbits with renal disease.

CASE DESCRIPTION A 3-year-old and a 7-year-old spayed female rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) were evaluated because of digestive stasis associated with renal asymmetry. CLINICAL FINDINGS Neoplasia of the right kidney was diagnosed via cytologic analysis in the 3-year-old rabbit. Ureterolithiasis of the left kidney was diagnosed via abdominal ultrasonography in the 7-year-old rabbit. To evaluate whether unilateral nephrectomy was indicated, evaluation of glomerular filtration rate by dynamic CT (CT-GFR) was performed on both rabbits. On the basis of the functional and morphological CT-GFR results, radical nephrectomy was recommended for the rabbit with renal neoplasia whereas a more conservative approach was recommended for the other rabbit. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME The rabbit with renal neoplasia underwent radical nephrectomy without complication. The rabbit with ureterolithiasis underwent ureteral stent placement, and the renal pelvic dilatation resolved. Both rabbits maintained unremarkable serum urea and creatinine concentrations after surgery. CLINICAL RELEVANCE GFR is a highly useful and reliable variable for the evaluation of renal function but is difficult to assess with routine clinical laboratory tests. The CT-GFR technique described here was quickly performed, was technically suitable for rabbits, and provided clinically relevant information. Studies are required to establish reference values for CT-GFR in rabbits.

Infundibular Pulmonic Stenosis in a Moluccan Cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis).

A 31-year-old female Moluccan cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) was examined for intermittent foot clenching of 4 months' duration. Physical examination revealed feather-destructive behavior and clinical findings compatible with hypovitaminosis A. Neurologic examination was unremarkable. Results of radiographs, hematologic testing, plasma biochemical analyses, and measurement of lead and trace element blood concentrations were unremarkable, except for degenerative joint disease of several thoracic intervertebral joints and a low blood copper concentration. Increased dietary copper was recommended. After a 6-month period without clinical signs, the bird presented again for episodes of foot weakness. Radiographic review was suggestive of mild pulmonary trunk enlargement. Echocardiography revealed mild mitral and aortic regurgitation, dilation of the ascending aorta, and a dilated right ventricle with turbulent right ventricular outflow. An electrocardiogram revealed a sinus rhythm and normal-appearing complexes. Nonselective fluoroscopic angiography was performed 3 weeks later because of persistent episodes of foot clenching and weakness. Infundibular pulmonic stenosis, poststenotic dilation of the pulmonic trunk, and proximal main pulmonary arteries were identified, as well as a mild narrowing of the descending aorta compatible with aortic stenosis. The bird was discharged without medication but with dietary recommendations and experienced 2 clenching episodes in the days after the last visit. No recurrence of clinical signs has been reported over the 18-month follow-up period. To our knowledge, this is the first report of infundibular pulmonic stenosis in a bird. This case illustrates the application of basic and advanced diagnostic imaging modalities in evaluating cardiac disease in birds.