Autism spectrum disorder in young patients with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome: role of the autonomic nervous system dysfunction.

BACKGROUND: Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) is a rare condition characterized by alveolar hypoventilation and autonomic nervous system (ANS) dysfunction requiring long-term ventilation. CCHS could constitute a risk factor of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) due to birth injury related to respiratory failure, which remains to be determined. ANS dysfunction has also been described in ASD and there are indications for altered contribution of ANS-central nervous system interaction in processing of social information; thus, CCHS could be a risk factor for ASD based on pathophysiological background also. Our study aimed to determine the prevalence of ASD among CCHS patients, identify risk factors, and explore the relationship between the ANS, evaluated by heart rate variability indices, and adaptative functioning. RESULTS: Our retrospective study, based on the analysis of records of a French national center of patients with CCHS under 20 years of age, determined that the prevalence of ASD (diagnosed by a psychiatrist, following the criteria of DSM-4 or DSM-5) was 6/69 patients, 8.7% (95% confidence interval: 3.3-18.0%). In a case (CCHS with ASD, n = 6) - control (CCHS without ASD, n = 12) study with matching on sex, longer neonatal hospitalization stay and glycemic dysfunction were associated with ASD. Adaptative functioning was assessed using Vineland Adaptative behavioral scales (VABS) and heart rate variability indices (including daytime RMSSD as an index of parasympathetic modulation) were obtained from ECG Holter performed the same day. In 19 young subjects with CCHS who had both ECG Holter and VABS, significant positive correlations were observed between RMSSD and three of four sub-domains of the VABS (communication: R = 0.50, p = 0.028; daily living skills: R = 0.60, p = 0.006; socialization: R = 0.52, p = 0.021). CONCLUSION: Our study suggests a high prevalence of ASD in patients with CCHS. Glycemic dysfunction and longer initial hospitalization stays were associated with ASD development. A defect in parasympathetic modulation was associated with worse adaptative functioning.

Tracheostomy and inpatient outcomes among children with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome: A kids' inpatient database study.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) is a rare disease predisposing children to respiratory failure due to abnormal ventilatory drive. Variability in hypoventilation and respiratory support need have been reported. We aim to identify clinical variables associated with incident tracheostomy and common etiologies of hospitalization among children with CCHS. METHODS: Hospital discharge records were obtained for children (<21 years) with CCHS hospitalized between 2006 and 2019 from the Kid's Inpatient Database. Primary diagnostic categories for hospitalizations with CCHS were summarized. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to explore risk factors associated with incident tracheostomy. RESULTS: Among 2404 hospitalizations with CCHS, 133 (5.5%) had incident tracheostomy, 1230 (51.2%) had established tracheostomy, and 1041 (43.3%) had no tracheostomy. Compared with children without tracheostomy, those with incident tracheostomy were younger, had a history of prematurity, congenital heart disease, laryngeal, glottic, and subglottic stenosis (LGSS), congenital airway anomalies, neuromuscular weakness, gastroesophageal reflux disease. Children without tracheostomy had higher mortality than those with tracheostomy status (2.19% vs. 0.66%). Multivariable-adjusted analyses showed that incident tracheostomy was associated with infancy (0-1 years), neuromuscular weakness, and congenital heart disease. Most common diagnostic categories include (1) diseases of the respiratory system (30.23%), (2) injury and poisoning (9.35%), and (3) diseases of the nervous system and sense organs (6.71%). CONCLUSIONS: Children with CCHS who received incident tracheostomy are more likely to be younger and with LGSS, neuromuscular weakness and congenital heart disease. Clinicians should be aware of these risk factors representing more severe CCHS with earlier manifestation needing tracheostomy. Higher mortality among nontracheostomy group highlights the need for considering tracheostomy in caring for children with CCHS.

Pulmonary hypertension in an adult patient with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome: a case report.

Background: Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) is a life-threatening disorder of autonomic respiratory control. Mutations in the paired-like homeobox 2B (PHOX2B) gene impair respiratory drive, causing hypercarbia and hypoxaemia. Most patients with CCHS are diagnosed in the neonatal period; however, a few are diagnosed in adulthood. Case summary: We report a 32-year-old man with a history of unexplained cyanosis 14 days after birth. He presented to our hospital with breathlessness and abnormal electrocardiogram findings discovered in a health check-up. Pulmonary hypertension (PH) was suspected based on electrocardiographic and echocardiographic evidence of right ventricular (RV) overload. Results of pulmonary function tests and chest computed tomography were normal. Arterial blood gas analysis revealed type 2 respiratory failure without a significant alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient, indicating alveolar hypoventilation. Right heart catheterization (RHC) showed pre-capillary PH [pulmonary artery pressure 47/24 (35) mmHg], and a hyperventilation challenge test and a non-invasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) treatment during RHC provided drastic improvement in PH [pulmonary artery pressure 28/12 (18) mmHg]. Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome was diagnosed based on genetic testing (20/25 polyalanine repeat expansion mutations in PHOX2B). After NPPV therapy initiation, the RV overload was slightly improved. Discussion: Some patients with CCHS develop mild hypoventilation without overt clinical signs, and PH can be the first clinical manifestation. In our case, the hyperventilation challenge test improved PH. Although CCHS causes chronic alveolar hypoxia and hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction with subsequent PH, optimal ventilation therapy can improve pulmonary circulation even in affected adults.

Airway obstruction in two children with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome and review of the literature.

Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) is an autosomal dominant disease that is caused by heterozygous mutations in the paired-like homeobox 2B gene (PHOX2B). Madani et al. described an abnormally high degree of not only central apnea but also obstructive and mixed apnea in Phox2b27Ala/+newborn mice. Newborns with CCHS must undergo polysomnography for obstructive respiratory events in order to guide the optimal ventilation strategy if oxygen desaturation, bradycardia, and malaise persist under noninvasive ventilation. Newborns and infants with CCHS must be systematically tested for obstructive apnea, especially in cases of inefficient noninvasive ventilation.

Recurrence of CCHS-associated PHOX2B Poly-Alanine expansion variant due to paternal mosaicism.

BACKGROUND: Paired-like Homeobox 2B (PHOX2B) is considered the causative gene of Congenital Central Hypoventilation Syndrome (CCHS), a dominant genetic disorder characterized by impaired central respiratory control and subsequent hypoventilation during sleep. METHODS: Herein, we present a family with recurrent severe CCHS. The potential causative genetic variant was confirmed through Whole-Exome Sequencing (WES), Sanger sequencing, and droplet digital PCR (ddPCR). Furthermore, prenatal diagnosis was performed on the proband's mother at 20 weeks of her fourth pregnancy upon request. RESULTS: The proband and her brother were both carriers of the PHOX2B polyalanine expansion variant: c.744_758dupCGCGGCAGCGGCGGCGGCGGC. Sanger sequencing revealed that the proband's father had a small variant peak in the gene position, implying potential somatic mosaicism. In addition, ddPCR results showed that the proband's father had germline mosaicism, with a mosaicism proportion of 14.3%. Notably, the detect p.(Ala241[26]) variant was not detected in the fetus. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have important implications for improving genetic counseling of CCHS families as they suggest that even parents without CCHS symptoms may have somatic chimerism, necessitating careful genetic counseling and consideration of prenatal testing for subsequent pregnancies.

Disease-associated polyalanine expansion mutations impair UBA6-dependent ubiquitination.

Expansion mutations in polyalanine stretches are associated with a growing number of diseases sharing a high degree of genotypic and phenotypic commonality. These similarities prompted us to query the normal function of physiological polyalanine stretches and to investigate whether a common molecular mechanism is involved in these diseases. Here, we show that UBA6, an E1 ubiquitin-activating enzyme, recognizes a polyalanine stretch within its cognate E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme USE1. Aberrations in this polyalanine stretch reduce ubiquitin transfer to USE1 and, subsequently, polyubiquitination and degradation of its target, the ubiquitin ligase E6AP. Furthermore, we identify competition for the UBA6-USE1 interaction by various proteins with polyalanine expansion mutations in the disease state. The deleterious interactions of expanded polyalanine tract proteins with UBA6 in mouse primary neurons alter the levels and ubiquitination-dependent degradation of E6AP, which in turn affects the levels of the synaptic protein Arc. These effects are also observed in induced pluripotent stem cell-derived autonomic neurons from patients with polyalanine expansion mutations, where UBA6 overexpression increases neuronal resilience to cell death. Our results suggest a shared mechanism for such mutations that may contribute to the congenital malformations seen in polyalanine tract diseases.

Further description of two individuals with de novo p.(Glu127Lys) missense variant in the ASCL1 gene.

Achaete-Scute Family basic-helix-loop-helix (bHLH) Transcription Factor 1 (ASCL1) is a proneural transcription factor involved in neuron development in the central and peripheral nervous system. While initially suspected to contribute to congenital central hypoventilation syndrome-1 (CCHS) with or without Hirschsprung disease (HSCR) in three individuals, its implication was ruled out by the presence, in one of the individuals, of a Paired-like homeobox 2B (PHOX2B) heterozygous polyalanine expansion variant, known to cause CCHS. We report two additional unrelated individuals sharing the same sporadic ASCL1 p.(Glu127Lys) missense variant in the bHLH domain and a common phenotype with short-segment HSCR, signs of dysautonomia, and developmental delay. One has also mild CCHS without polyalanine expansion in PHOX2B, compatible with the diagnosis of Haddad syndrome. Furthermore, missense variants with homologous position in the same bHLH domain in other genes are known to cause human diseases. The description of additional individuals carrying the same variant and similar phenotype, as well as targeted functional studies, would be interesting to further evaluate the role of ASCL1 in neurocristopathies.

Characteristics and outcomes in children with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome on long-term mechanical ventilation in the Netherlands.

Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) is a rare condition characterized by central hypoventilation, leading to the majority of patients being dependent on ventilatory support during sleep. This condition is often accompanied by various associated symptoms, due to a PHOX2B gene variant involved in neuronal crest cell migration. This study is the first to review the characteristics and outcomes in children with CCHS on long-term mechanical ventilation in the Netherlands. We performed a retrospective study of all CCHS patients treated in the 4 Centers of Home Mechanical Ventilation of the University Medical Centers in the Netherlands from 2000 till 2022 by collecting information from the electronic medical records, documented during follow-up. We included 31 patients, out of which 27 exhibited a known genetic profile associated with CCHS, while no PHOX2B variant was identified in the remaining patients. Among the 27 patients with known genetic profiles, 10 patients had a non-polyalanine repeat expansion mutation (NPARM), followed by 20/27, 20/25, and 20/26 polyalanine repeat expansion mutations (PARMs) in descending order. The most common presentation involved respiratory failure or apneas during the neonatal period with an inability to wean off ventilation. The majority of patients required ventilatory support during sleep, with four patients experiencing life-threatening events related to this dependency. Daily use of ventilatory support varied among different genetic profiles. All genotypes reported comorbidities, with Hirschsprung's disease and cardiac arrhythmias being the most reported comorbidities. Notably, Hirschprung's disease was exclusively observed in patients with a 20/27 PHOX2B variant. CONCLUSION: Our study results suggest that in our cohort, the genotype is not easily associated to the phenotype in CCHS. Consistent with these findings and international literature, we recommend a thorough annual evaluation for all patients with CCHS to ensure optimal management and follow-up. WHAT IS KNOWN: • The majority of CCHS patients are dependent on ventilatory support. • Variants in the PHOX2B gene are responsible for the characteristics of CCHS. WHAT IS NEW: • This study provides insight into the clinical course and long-term outcomes of CCHS patients in the Netherlands. • In CCHS, the genotype is not easily associated with the phenotype, requiring a thorough life-long follow-up for all patients.

Effect of Facemask in Congenital Central Hypoventilation Syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) is a rare genetic disorder with a mutation in the PHOX2B gene. Patients need ventilatory support by noninvasive ventilation or tracheostomy to treat alveolar hypoventilation. Patients with CCHS have a defect in chemosensitivity signal integration. Recently, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the entire world has had to get used to wearing medical masks (MM). OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of an MM on gas exchange and to determine the role of central and peripheral chemoresponsiveness on the partial pressure of transcutaneous carbon dioxide (PtcCO2) in patients with CCHS wearing an MM. METHODS: This study was based on the analysis of recordings obtained without and with an MM during hospitalization and was conducted to assess the impact of MM on PtcCO2 and SpO2 recordings with the SenTec Digital Monitor and their relationships with peripheral CO2 chemosensitivity obtained during tidal breathing measurement and with the hypercapnic hyperoxic ventilatory response. RESULTS: Sixteen patients were included (13 boys) and were 10.2 (7.5; 18.5) years old. The use of an MM had a negative impact on gas exchange in patients with CCHS. The median PtcCO2 increased significantly. Peripheral chemosensitivity correlated with MM-induced PtcCO2 changes (R = -0.72, p = 0.005), but central chemosensitivity (the hypercapnic ventilator response slope) did not (R = -0.22, p = 0.510). CONCLUSION: The use of an MM had a negative impact on gas exchange in patients with CCHS.

Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome in Chinese population: Analysis of three new cases and review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) is a rare autosomal dominant disease that is mainly caused by PHOX2B mutations. The purpose of this study is to analyze and summarize the clinical and genetic characteristics of CCHS patients in the Chinese population from our study and previous literature. METHODS: The potential pathogenic gene mutations of CCHS were identified and verified by next generation sequencing combined with Sanger sequencing, fluorescent probe PCR and capillary electrophoresis. The clinical characteristics and gene mutations of CCHS cases in Chinese population were summarized from our study and previous literature to explore the genotype-phenotype correlations. RESULTS: We identified 48 CCHS cases including three new cases from our report in China. Overall, 77.1% of the patients had PHOX2B polyalanine repeat expansion mutations (PARMs), and the remaining 22.9% had 10 distinct PHOX2B non-polyalanine repeat expansion mutations (NPARMs). Compared to those with PARMs, patients with NPARMs were more likely to have premature birth (54.5% vs. 2.8%, p < 0.001) and lower birth weight (33.3% vs. 3.2%, p = 0.030), with statistical significance. The patients with PARMs were more likely to have cardiovascular defects (64.9% vs. 27.3%, p = 0.063), cerebral hemorrhage (29.7% vs. 9.1%, p = 0.322) and seizures (37.8% vs. 9.1%, p = 0.151) than those with NPARMs, with no statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: CCHS patients with PHOX2B NPARMs were more likely to have premature birth and low birth weight, while PHOX2B PARMs tended to be positively associated with the risk of cardiovascular defects, cerebral hemorrhage and seizures in Chinese population.

Multidisciplinary approach to congenital central hypoventilation syndrome during pregnancy: case report.

Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome is a rare genetic disorder that affects control of breathing caused by variants in the paired-like homeobox 2B (PHOX2B) gene. During pregnancy, women with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome are at risk for hypoventilation and require frequent assessments of oxygenation and ventilation during wakefulness and sleep on their ventilator. This could potentially lead to adjustments in the ventilator settings or a change in the assisted ventilation modality. We report the case of a 31-year-old pregnant woman with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome and an implanted cardiac pacemaker who underwent prenatal genetic testing for congenital central hypoventilation syndrome and who delivered a healthy newborn by cesarean delivery. She received collaborative multidisciplinary care from a team that included specialists in obstetrics, maternal and fetal medicine, medical genetics, sleep and pulmonary medicine, cardiology, and anesthesiology. She used bilevel positive airway pressure therapy throughout pregnancy and after cesarean delivery without requiring adjustments in the bilevel positive airway pressure settings. Our case highlights the importance of multidisciplinary care in women with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome during pregnancy to optimize pregnancy and fetal outcomes.

Central CO2 chemosensitivity and CO2 controller gain independently contribute to daytime Pco2 in young subjects with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome.

Whether peripheral chemoreceptor response is altered in congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) remains debated. Our aim was to prospectively evaluate both peripheral and central CO2 chemosensitivity and to evaluate their correlations with daytime Pco2 and arterial desaturation during exercise in CCHS. To this end, tidal breathing was recorded in patients with CCHS allowing the calculation of loop gain and its components {steady-state controller (assumed to mainly be peripheral chemosensitivity) and plant gains using a bivariate [end-tidal Pco2 ([Formula: see text]) and ventilation] constrained model}, a hyperoxic, hypercapnic ventilatory response test (central chemosensitivity), and a 6-min walk test (arterial desaturation). The results of loop gain were compared with those previously obtained in a healthy group of similar age. The study prospectively included 23 subjects with CCHS, without daytime ventilatory support; the subjects had a median age of 10 (5.6 to 27.4) yr (15 females) with moderate polyalanine repeat mutation (PARM: 20/25, 20/26, n = 11), severe PARM (20/27, 20/33, n = 8), or non-PARM (n = 4). As compared with 23 healthy subjects (4.9-27.0 yr), the subjects with CCHS had a decreased controller gain and an increased plant gain. Mean daytime [Formula: see text] level of subjects with CCHS correlated negatively to both Log(controller gain) and the slope of CO2 response. Genotype was not related to chemosensitivity. Arterial desaturation on exercise correlated negatively with Log(controller) gain but not with the slope of the CO2 response. In conclusion, we demonstrate that peripheral CO2 chemosensitivity is altered in some patients with CCHS and that the daytime [Formula: see text] depends on central and peripheral chemoreceptor responses.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Altered central CO2 chemosensitivity is a hallmark of congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS). Peripheral CO2 chemosensitivity can be partly assessed by controller gain measurement obtained from tidal breathing recording. In young subjects with CCHS, this study shows that both central and peripheral CO2 sensitivities independently contribute to daytime Pco2. Hypocapnia during nighttime-assisted ventilation is associated with higher peripheral chemosensitivity that is further associated with lesser arterial desaturation at walk.

Congenital Central Hypoventilation Syndrome in Israel-Novel Findings from a New National Center.

BACKGROUND: Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) is a rare autosomal-dominant disorder of the autonomic nervous system that results from mutations in the PHOX2B gene. A national CCHS center was founded in Israel in 2018. Unique new findings were observed. METHODS: All 27 CCHS patients in Israel were contacted and followed. Novel findings were observed. RESULTS: The prevalence of new CCHS cases was almost twice higher compared to other countries. The most common mutations in our cohort were polyalanine repeat mutations (PARM) 20/25, 20/26, 20/27 (combined = 85% of cases). Two patients showed unique recessive inheritance while their heterozygotes family members were asymptomatic. A right-sided cardio-neuromodulation was performed on an eight-year-old boy for recurrent asystoles by ablating the parasympathetic ganglionated plexi using radiofrequency (RF) energy. Over 36 months' follow-up with an implantable loop-recorder, no bradycardias/pauses events were observed. A cardiac pacemaker was avoided. CONCLUSIONS: A significant benefit and new information arise from a nationwide expert CCHS center for both clinical and basic purposes. The incidence of CCHS in some populations may be increased. Asymptomatic NPARM mutations may be much more common in the general population, leading to an autosomal recessive presentation of CCHS. RF cardio-neuromodulation offers a novel approach to children avoiding the need for permanent pacemaker implantation.

Organoid models of breathing disorders reveal patterning defect of hindbrain neurons caused by PHOX2B-PARMs.

Retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN) neurons in the brainstem regulate the ventilatory response to hypercarbia. It is unclear how PHOX2B-polyalanine repeat mutations (PHOX2B-PARMs) alter the function of PHOX2B and perturb the formation of RTN neurons. Here, we generated human brainstem organoids (HBSOs) with RTN-like neurons from human pluripotent stem cells. Single-cell transcriptomics revealed that expression of PHOX2B+7Ala PARM alters the differentiation trajectories of the hindbrain neurons and hampers the formation of the RTN-like neurons in HBSOs. With the unguided cerebral organoids (HCOs), PHOX2B+7Ala PARM interrupted the patterning of PHOX2B+ neurons with dysregulation of Hedgehog pathway and HOX genes. With complementary use of HBSOs and HCOs with a patient and two mutant induced pluripotent stem cell lines carrying different polyalanine repetition in PHOX2B, we further defined the association between the length of polyalanine repetition and malformation of RTN-respiratory center and demonstrated the potential toxic gain of function of PHOX2B-PARMs, highlighting the uniqueness of these organoid models for disease modeling.

Congenital Central Hypoventilation Syndrome: Diagnosis and Long-Term Ventilatory Outcomes.

Background: Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS), a rare disease caused by variants in the paired-like homeobox 2B (PHOX2B) gene, affects regulation of respiration necessitating lifelong assisted ventilation (AV). Most patients require full-time AV during infancy and some patients may sustain adequate spontaneous ventilation during wakefulness and change AV modalities at a later age. The aims of this study were to assess the changes in duration and modalities of AV, long-term respiratory outcomes, and to correlate them with PHOX2B genotypes. Methods: We conducted a retrospective study of patients with CCHS treated at our institution between January 1997 and May 2022. Results analyzed included: clinical presentation, PHOX2B genotype, modality and duration of AV at diagnosis and follow-up, survival, and transition to adult care. Results: We identified 30 patients with CCHS-8 with PHOX2B nonpolyalanine repeat mutations (NPARMs), 21 with polyalanine repeat mutations (PARMs), and 1 with unknown PHOX2B genotype. The median age at presentation was 0.25 months (IQR 0.1-0.7 months). At diagnosis of CCHS, 24 (80%) patients required continuous AV and 28 (93%) received AV via tracheostomy. Twenty-six patients required sleep-only AV at a median age of 9 months (IQR 6-14 months). Nine patients requiring sleep-only AV underwent tracheostomy decannulation at a median age of 11.2 years (IQR 5.9-15.7 years) and used noninvasive positive pressure ventilation or diaphragm pacing. There was insufficient evidence to conclude that patients with PARMs and NPARMs differed by age at presentation (P = .39), tracheostomy (P = .06), and transition to sleep-only AV (P = .9). Six patients transitioned to adult care, 23 continued receiving pediatric care, and 1 patient died due to complications from Hirschsprung's disease. Conclusion: Our study demonstrates prolonged survival and good long-term respiratory outcomes possibly related to the early diagnosis of CCHS, optimizing AV strategies, and multidisciplinary care. The increasing number of patients attaining adulthood highlights the necessity for multidisciplinary care for adults with CCHS.

Rapid-onset obesity with hypothalamic dysfunction, hypoventilation, and autonomic dysregulation (ROHHAD): a collaborative review of the current understanding.

PURPOSE: To provide an overview of the discovery, presentation, and management of Rapid-onset Obesity with Hypothalamic dysfunction, Hypoventilation, and Autonomic Dysregulation (ROHHAD). To discuss a search for causative etiology spanning multiple disciplines and continents. METHODS: The literature (1965-2022) on the diagnosis, management, pathophysiology, and potential etiology of ROHHAD was methodically reviewed. The experience of several academic centers with expertise in ROHHAD is presented, along with a detailed discussion of scientific discovery in the search for a cause. RESULTS: ROHHAD is an ultra-rare syndrome with fewer than 200 known cases. Although variations occur, the acronym ROHHAD is intended to alert physicians to the usual sequence or unfolding of the phenotypic presentation, including the full phenotype. Nearly 60 years after its first description, more is known about the pathophysiology of ROHHAD, but the etiology remains enigmatic. The search for a genetic mutation common to patients with ROHHAD has not, to date, demonstrated a disease-defining gene. Similarly, a search for the autoimmune basis of ROHHAD has not resulted in a definitive answer. This review summarizes current knowledge and potential future directions. CONCLUSION: ROHHAD is a poorly understood, complex, and potentially devastating disorder. The search for its cause intertwines with the search for causes of obesity and autonomic dysregulation. The care for the patient with ROHHAD necessitates collaborative international efforts to advance our knowledge and, thereby, treatment, to decrease the disease burden and eventually to stop, and/or reverse the unfolding of the phenotype.

Obstructive sleep apnea as a presentation of congenital central hypoventilation syndrome.

Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome is a rare disorder due to a mutation in the PHOX2B gene, characterized by a failure in autonomic control of breathing with diminished or absent response to hypoxia and hypercapnia, which is most pronounced during sleep. Most patients present from birth with central apneas and hypoventilation, or later in the setting of a physiologic stress. Recent literature in mice with a Phox2b27Ala/+ mutation suggests a predisposition to obstructive apneas likely due to hypoglossal dysgenesis. We report on three patients with obstructive sleep apneas with absent or mild hypoventilation. Our cases propose that obstructive apneas can be the primary presentation in patients who subsequently develop the classic phenotype of congenital central hypoventilation syndrome and emphasize their close monitoring and surveillance. CITATION: Kagan O, Zhang C, McElyea C, Keens TG, Davidson Ward SL, Perez IA. Obstructive sleep apnea as a presentation of congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. J Clin Sleep Med. 2023;19(9):1697-1700.

Control of Breathing and Central Hypoventilation Syndromes.

Control of breathing in children varies with age and sleep state. There is overlap between central hypoventilation, autonomic dysfunction, and hypothalamic dysfunction in the rare disorders (congenital central hypoventilation syndrome and rapid-onset obesity, hypoventilation, hypothalamic dysfunction, and autonomic dysregulation). Other, more common disorders that typically present in childhood also include central hypoventilation and disordered ventilatory responses.