Characterisation of household single-use packaging flows through a municipal waste system: A material flow analysis for New South Wales, Australia.

Household single-use packaging has poor rates of recycling, and presents a challenge in transitioning to a circular packaging economy. This study characterises the flows of household single-use packaging in the municipal waste system for 2020-21 in New South Wales, Australia. Households are an important source of packaging usage in Australia, accounting for over 40 % of all packaging used in 2020-21. Our focus spans 17 single-use packaging materials and 11 formats. We estimate the composition of single-use consumer packaging in the kerbside collection stream, and the ultimate fate of used packaging. Results show 1000 ± 8 % kt of packaging was used by households in NSW in 2020-21 (∼123 kg/cap). Composition of the used packaging stream was dominated by glass (36 %), paper (29 %) and plastic (28 %) packaging. HDPE (26 % of plastic packaging), LDPE (24 %) and PET (19 %) were the main polymers in use. 63 % ± 5 % of used packaging was collected for recycling, and 34 % ± 7 % was recovered via recyclate generation and overseas exports. Glass packaging had the highest recycling rates at 52 % ± 3 %, while plastic packaging had the poorest at 11 % ± 10 %. Findings indicate incorrect disposal of recyclables at the household to mixed-waste systems as a major limitation of the system to improve recycling rates. Expansion in recovery capacity is also essential for improving recycling rates, and the potential for generating the packaging-grade recyclate essential for meeting recycled content targets. The study offers contributions to the understanding of consumer packaging managed within the municipal waste system. Insights gained have application in informing sustainable packaging and waste management strategies.

Display of Lignin Peroxidase on the Surface of Bacillus subtilis.

Lignin peroxidase (LiP) has a good application prospect in lignin degradation, environmental treatment, straw feed, and other industries. However, its application is constrained by the high price and low stability of enzyme preparation. In this study, the Escherichia coli-Bacillus subtilis (E. coli-B. subtilis) shuttle expression vector pHS-cotG-lip was constructed and displayed on the surface of Bacillus subtilis spores. The analysis of enzymatic properties showed that the optimal catalytic temperature and pH of the immobilized LiP were 55 °C and 4.5, respectively. Compared with free LiP (42 °C and pH4.0), the optimal reaction temperature increased by 13 °C. After incubation at 70 °C for 1 h, its activity remained above 30%, while the free LiP completely lost its activity under the same conditions. Adding Mn2+, DL-lactic acid, and PEG-4000 increased the CotG-LiP enzyme activity to 313%, 146%, and 265%, respectively. The recyclability of spore display made the fusion protein CotG-LiP retain more than 50% enzyme activity after four cycles. The excellent recycling rate indicated that LiP displayed on the spore surface had a good application prospect in sewage treatment and other fields, and also provided a reference for the rapid and low-cost immobilized production of enzyme preparations.

Informal waste pickers in guayaquil: Recycling rates, environmental benefits, main barriers, and troubles.

Systems for managing municipal solid waste are typically ineffective in developing nations because of governments' deficient financial and administrative frameworks, poor rules, and a lack of suitable infrastructure and human resources. The informal sector plays an essential role in these systems by reprocessing waste into secondary raw materials, reducing collection and disposal costs, and, most importantly, benefiting the environment by avoiding incineration and landfilling. However, their actual contributions remain unknown. The present paper aims to understand the role of informal waste pickers (IWPs) in the waste management system of Guayaquil City and their environmental impact through the calculations of the carbon footprint (CF) avoided due to their aid. The survey design gathered information on their personal profiles, types, and rates of collected recyclables, market conditions, their main barriers, and troubles regarding their formalization. The results of the survey demonstrate that waste picking is mostly a male-driven activity, the average daily mass collected per IWP is 13 kg, the most collected recyclable waste is polyethylene terephthalate, their average monthly income is $179, and the total avoided CF of the entire informal waste picking process is almost 14 thousand tons of CO2 eq yearly. Further, IWPs prefer to operate alone, and only 16% of them would join a cooperative, despite their numerous financial, logistical, and personal challenges.

Towards the definition of WEEE recycling targets in Ecuador. A case of study for mobile phones.

The rise of consumption patterns of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and the generation of waste EEE (WEEE) has been strongly increasing globally. Recycling rates (RRs) are one of the main indicators for monitoring the progress towards a circular economy and establishing recovery and treatment schemes. For this reason, this study discusses the setting of recycling targets for WEEE in Ecuador, using mobile phones as a case study. Firstly, the generation of mobile phone waste from 2012 to 2018 is estimated based on literature review. The most appropriate model for estimating WEEE generation is selected according to the applicable market conditions, input requirements and available data. Then, the composition of a mobile phone is determined through an extensive literature review. Based on these results, the materials' environmental impact and potential economic value are approximated using the ReCiPe Endpoint (H, A) method and the prices of virgin materials, respectively. The estimation shows that in Ecuador an average of 2 million devices are discarded every year, which represents an interesting source of resources but currently does not have appropriate management. Ecuador has implemented regulatory frameworks in favour of the integral management of these wastes. However, mass-based collection targets still appear to be the only available measure. Therefore, national results on electronics recycling do not allow adequate monitoring of progress towards a circular economy and largely neglect environmental aspects and economic potential.

The multidimensional effects of single-use and packaging plastic strategies on German household waste management.

Single-use and packaging plastic (SUPP) strategies are intended to transform the linear make-use-dispose economy of SUPPs into a more circular, resource-efficient one. The aim of this study was to identify optimal SUPP management concepts from a circular-economy-perspective by assessing the effects of different SUPP strategies on household waste management. Data on the generation and management of SUPP-containing household waste in Germany in 2017 were compiled and a material flow model was established. Regulatory SUPP strategies were translated into scenarios (with effects on waste generation and waste composition) and implemented in the material flow model. The effects on material efficiency, waste generation and lower heating values were evaluated and trade-offs between these target dimensions were identified. In Germany in 2017, 32 kg per person and year of SUPP household waste were generated, of which 28 kg per person and year was packaging waste. From a material efficiency perspective, the combination of banning specific non-packaging SUPPs and optimizing source-separation leads to the maximum increase in final recycling rates of SUPPs in household waste, from 38% to 50%. However, in this scenario the amount of SUPP-containing household waste is hardly reduced as compared to the status quo. The trade-offs observed in different waste management target dimensions highlight the importance of understanding the systemic effects of SUPP strategies on waste management in order to identify optimal solutions from a circular-economy-perspective.

Material efficiency to measure the environmental performance of waste management systems: A case study on PET bottle recycling in Austria, Germany and Serbia.

Material efficiency measures, such as recycling rates, are often used to set circular economy targets to achieve higher resource efficiency and lower environmental impact. The aim of this study was to identify material efficiency indicators suitable to reflect the environmental performance of waste and recycling systems using PET bottle waste management in three European countries with diverse waste management structures and recycling performance levels. Material flow analysis and life cycle assessment were performed to assess the material efficiency and environmental impacts of each system as a basis to analyze the relation between these two dimensions. PET bottle waste generation was 5.4 kg/person and year (pa) in Austria in 2013, 6.0 kg/pa in Germany in 2017 and 6.9 kg/pa in Serbia in 2015. Out of this waste flow 41%, 91%, and 11% were directed into PET recyclate in Austria, Germany and Serbia, respectively. For all systems, higher material efficiency translated into lower environmental impact and vice versa. However, linear regression analysis between different material efficiency indicators and environmental impacts showed that indicators targeted at actual recycling, specifically at closed loop, were better suited to reflect environmental performance than input-based indicators. Therefore, whenever data are available, output-based quality-related indicators should be used to measure the material efficiency of waste and resource systems because they correlate best with the goals of increasing resource efficiency and decreasing environmental impacts.

Technologies for chemical recycling of household plastics - A technical review and TRL assessment.

Chemical recycling is considered an attractive technological pathway for reducing waste and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as promoting circular economy. In the EU, readiness to develop a full commercial plant is becoming increasingly important given the ambitious goal to recycle all plastics by 2030. Household packaging streams tend to be of lower quality and lower recycling performance compared to industrial and commercial waste streams, thus requiring particular attention. This paper assesses chemical recycling technologies available and identifies the most suitable for recycling of household plastic waste. We identify eight different technologies and compare them in terms of process temperature, sensitivity to feedstock contamination and level of polymer breakdown, three critical factors affecting the cost and attractiveness of a chemical process. In addition, we carry out a Technology Readiness Level (TRL) assessment for eight technologies based on the stage of their present development. The review is based on peer-reviewed scientific papers and information collected from technology developers and providers, as well as interviews with experts. Our analysis outlines advantages and disadvantages of technologies available for chemical plastic recycling and their TRL. The chemical recycling technologies with the highest TRL are pyrolysis, catalytic cracking and conventional gasification. However, the economic feasibility of these technologies is difficult to assess due to the low number of projects in operation and scarcity of data available for comparison. The results of this analysis provide timely information as policy makers and developers set targets for recycling, and contemplate investments on research and chemical plastic recovering plants.

Benchmarking performance of solid waste management and recycling systems in East Africa: Comparing Kigali Rwanda with other major cities.

This paper aims to benchmark performance of combined solid waste management (SWM) and recycling systems in major cities of East Africa. The Wasteaware indicators are used to present a detailed systems analysis for Kigali in Rwanda, including a mass flow diagram; comparative data are taken from the Wasteaware database for Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Kampala, Uganda, Nairobi, Kenya, and also for neighboring Maputo, Mozambique. The stand-out result is the relatively high collection coverage achieved, in Maputo with extensive international technical assistance, and in Kigali using its own local resources. In both cases, governance factors are key. Kigali uses a public-private partnership, with exclusive franchises in 35 sectors being tendered every three years; households pay an affordable fee depending on their ability to pay (the service is free to the poorest category); and 95% fee collection rates are achieved, partly through co-collection with charges for local security patrols, which is a service people value highly given the recent history of the country. Another key priority to improve SWM across East Africa is to eliminate open dumping - only Kampala currently has an engineered disposal site. Recycling rates also need to be increased - only Nairobi currently has a good baseline to build on (30%). Common weaknesses include a lack of segregation at source, of institutional capacity, and of available and reliable waste data.

Sustainable mechanical biological treatment of solid waste in urbanized areas with low recycling rates.

Landfill is still the main technological facility used to treat and dispose municipal solid waste (MSW) worldwide. In developing countries, final dumping is applied without environmental monitoring and soil protection since solid waste is mostly sent to open dump sites while, in Europe, landfilling is considered as the last option since reverse logistic approaches or energy recovery are generally encouraged. However, many regions within the European Union continue to dispose of MSW to landfill, since modern facilities have not been introduced owing to unreliable regulations or financial sustainability. In this paper, final disposal activities and pre-treatment operations in an area in southern Italy are discussed, where final disposal is still the main option for treating MSW and the recycling rate is still low. Mechanical biological treatment (MBT) facilities are examined in order to evaluate the organic stabilization practices applied for MSW and the efficiencies in refuse derived fuel production, organic waste stabilization and mass reduction. Implementing MBT before landfilling the environmental impact and waste mass are reduced, up to 30%, since organic fractions are stabilized resulting an oxygen uptake rate less than 1600 mgO2 h-1 kg-1VS, and inorganic materials are exploited. Based on experimental data, this work examines MBT application in contexts where recycling and recovery activities have not been fully developed. The evidence of this study led to state that the introduction of MBT facilities is recommended for developing regions with high putrescible waste production in order to decrease environmental pollution and enhance human healthy.

'Wasteaware' benchmark indicators for integrated sustainable waste management in cities.

This paper addresses a major problem in international solid waste management, which is twofold: a lack of data, and a lack of consistent data to allow comparison between cities. The paper presents an indicator set for integrated sustainable waste management (ISWM) in cities both North and South, to allow benchmarking of a city's performance, comparing cities and monitoring developments over time. It builds on pioneering work for UN-Habitat's solid waste management in the World's cities. The comprehensive analytical framework of a city's solid waste management system is divided into two overlapping 'triangles' - one comprising the three physical components, i.e. collection, recycling, and disposal, and the other comprising three governance aspects, i.e. inclusivity; financial sustainability; and sound institutions and proactive policies. The indicator set includes essential quantitative indicators as well as qualitative composite indicators. This updated and revised 'Wasteaware' set of ISWM benchmark indicators is the cumulative result of testing various prototypes in more than 50 cities around the world. This experience confirms the utility of indicators in allowing comprehensive performance measurement and comparison of both 'hard' physical components and 'soft' governance aspects; and in prioritising 'next steps' in developing a city's solid waste management system, by identifying both local strengths that can be built on and weak points to be addressed. The Wasteaware ISWM indicators are applicable to a broad range of cities with very different levels of income and solid waste management practices. Their wide application as a standard methodology will help to fill the historical data gap.