The effects of caffeine mouth rinsing on selective attention as a function of different caffeine concentrations and perceived taste intensity in recreationally active males at rest: a randomized placebo-controlled cross-over trial.

RATIONALE: The effect of caffeine mouth rinsing (CAF-MR) on cognitive performance has not been thoroughly investigated. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effects of different concentrations of CAF-MR on selective attention in relation to perceived taste intensity. METHODS: A total of 30 healthy and recreationally active male subjects were included in this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial. Interventions included MR for 20 s at rest with three different caffeine solutions (0.24% [60 mg/25 mL], 0.6% [150 mg/25 mL], and 1.2% [300 mg/25 mL]), MR with 25 mL water (placebo), and no MR (control). Data on Victoria Stroop Test (VST) and the perceived taste intensity were recorded at five sessions. RESULTS: CAF-MR-300 mg intervention significantly decreased completion time (from 62.93 ± 19.07 to 57.01 ± 16.74 s, p = 0.002 in Part D), while CAF-MR-150 mg intervention significantly decreased number of errors in Part D (7.00 ± 6.21 vs. 5.63 ± 5.76, p = 0.04) and Part C (8.77 ± 8.80 vs. 7.10 ± 7.11, p = 0.02). Perceived difficulty was significantly decreased both after CAF-MR with 150 mg (5.57 ± 1.65 vs. 4.77 ± 1.98, p = 0.006) and 300 mg (5.95 ± 1.77vs. 4.67 ± 1.96, p < 0.001). Perceived taste intensity for 300 mg of caffeine was negatively correlated with completion time (r: ranged, 0.37 to 0.46, p ranged, 0.045 to 0.009) after 300 mg, 150 mg (p ranged, 0.04 to 0.005) and placebo (p ranged 0.044 to 0.03) interventions. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to demonstrate that CAF-MR shows dose-dependent effects on selective attention in healthy recreational males, such as improved speed (for 300 mg caffeine), reduced error rate (for 150 mg caffeine) and decrease in perceived difficulty (for 150 and 300 mg caffeine).

Reduced prefrontal activation during cognitive control under emotional interference in chronic insomnia disorder.

This study investigated the altered neural activation underlying cognitive control under emotional and sleep-related interference conditions and its role in subjective sleep disturbance in patients with chronic insomnia disorder. In total, 48 patients with chronic insomnia disorder, and 48 age-, sex- and body mass index-matched controls were included in this study. They completed self-reported questionnaires to assess subjective sleep and emotional distress. A sleep diary was used to evaluate subjective sleep parameters. All participants performed the emotional Stroop task (three blocks each of negative emotional, sleep-related, and neutral words) during functional magnetic resonance imaging assessments. We compared brain activation during the emotional Stroop task between the two groups. We also analysed the correlations between altered neural activation and sleep variables. Less neural activation was detected in the right anterior prefrontal cortex of patients with chronic insomnia disorder than in controls when performing the emotional Stroop task with negative emotional words. The decrease in neural activation was negatively correlated with scores on Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Insomnia Severity Index, and Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes about Sleep Scale. In contrast, they were positively correlated with subjective total sleep time and sleep efficiency as reported in sleep diaries. A decrease in right anterior prefrontal cortex activity under the negative emotional words condition of the emotional Stroop task in patients with chronic insomnia disorder suggests a failure of top-down inhibition of negative emotional stimuli. This failure induces disinhibition of cognitive hyperarousal, manifested as rumination or intrusive worries, and potentially causing subjective sleep disturbances.

The neural mechanisms of the impact of emoji spatial metaphors on emotional perception.

Metaphors play a crucial role in language, thinking, and communication. Emoji, as modern metaphors, carry rich meanings and significantly impact emotional expression. While spatial metaphors in emotional lexicons are confirmed, empirical evidence for spatial metaphors in emoji is scarce, and their neural mechanisms are largely unexplored. This study used a spatial Stroop task to investigate emoji spatial metaphors and their effects on emotional perception and neural mechanisms. The results showed that when the positive emoji were in the upper visual field, compared with the middle and lower visual field, the ability to perceive positive emotions was significantly enhanced; Conversely, when the negative emotion emoji was in the lower visual field, the perception of negative emotion was significantly enhanced compared to the middle visual field. EEG data indicate that inconsistencies between Emoji spatial positions and emotional valence lead to increased amplitudes of the Late Positive Component (LPC), revealing heightened neural activity.

Differences in suicide-specific attentional bias based on stimuli across the suicide Stroop and disengagement tasks.

BACKGROUND: Evidence of suicide-specific attentional bias has been mixed, including the effect of specific suicide words (e.g., "suicide" versus "overdose"). The current study examined the psychometric properties and convergent validity of specific suicide words on the Stroop and disengagement tasks. METHODS: Adults (79.8 % male, mean age = 42.19 ± 12.66) on a psychiatric inpatient unit completed both tasks, as well as clinical and demographic measures, following a recent suicide attempt (SA) (n = 55) or recent suicidal ideation (SI) with (n = 29) or without (n = 26) a SA history. RESULTS: Mean reaction times (RTs) on both tasks demonstrated good internal consistency and were moderately correlated across tasks, while interference scores demonstrated poor reliability and were not correlated. Attentional bias to specific suicide words did not differentiate SA groups, except for a small, unexpected effect on the Stroop task showing greater interference to the word "funeral" among the recent SA group. Correlations with suicide risk factors differed for males and females. LIMITATIONS: Participants all endorsed elevated SI, limiting generalizability beyond a recent suicidal crisis. Different suicide words were used on each task limiting direct comparisons. Groups based on SA history and gender were uneven, and correlations need to be replicated. Effects involving interference scores should be interpreted with caution given poor internal consistency. CONCLUSION: The suicide Stroop and disengagement tasks partially capture distinct aspects of suicide-relevant attentional bias. Greater attention is needed regarding the particular stimuli and scoring methods as well as the role gender plays in suicide-relevant attentional bias.

Benefits of postural sway to succeed in goal-directed visual tasks.

When individuals stand, they sway and so have to maintain their balance. It is generally expected that task performance is worse when standing and swaying than when sitting and therefore not swaying. In contrast, we hypothesized that greater sway is associated with better task performance in the absence of external perturbations of posture. Twenty-four healthy, young adults performed two goal-directed, modified Stroop tasks (incongruent and reversed incongruent) in four body position conditions (standing against a vertical surface, and standing freely with a wide, standard or narrow stance). Centre of pressure (COP) sway, head sway, eye movements, visual attention, and task performance were recorded. Partial correlation analyses showed significant positive associations between task performance and some COP and head sway variables, after controlling for the level of visual attention. Analyses of variance with three factors (body position, task difficulty, target distance) also showed significant interaction effects between body position (and therefore postural sway) and the number of accurate target findings. The presence of these interactions showed that narrow stance was both the best body position for performing the incongruent task and the worst body position for performing the reversed incongruent task. Overall, COP sway and head sway can increase task performance. Hence, healthy, young adults in quiet stance appear to use sway to explore their environment more effectively. However, it should be borne in mind that our hypothesis was formulated solely with regard to healthy, young adults standing in quiet stance.

Second language learning in older adults modulates Stroop task performance and brain activation.

Introduction: Numerous studies have highlighted cognitive benefits in lifelong bilinguals during aging, manifesting as superior performance on cognitive tasks compared to monolingual counterparts. Yet, the cognitive impacts of acquiring a new language in older adulthood remain unexplored. In this study, we assessed both behavioral and fMRI responses during a Stroop task in older adults, pre- and post language-learning intervention. Methods: A group of 41 participants (age:60-80) from a predominantly monolingual environment underwent a four-month online language course, selecting a new language of their preference. This intervention mandated engagement for 90 minutes a day, five days a week. Daily tracking was employed to monitor progress and retention. All participants completed a color-word Stroop task inside the scanner before and after the language instruction period. Results: We found that performance on the Stroop task, as evidenced by accuracy and reaction time, improved following the language learning intervention. With the neuroimaging data, we observed significant differences in activity between congruent and incongruent trials in key regions in the prefrontal and parietal cortex. These results are consistent with previous reports using the Stroop paradigm. We also found that the amount of time participants spent with the language learning program was related to differential activity in these brain areas. Specifically, we found that people who spent more time with the language learning program showed a greater increase in differential activity between congruent and incongruent trials after the intervention relative to before. Discussion: Future research is needed to determine the optimal parameters for language learning as an effective cognitive intervention for aging populations. We propose that with sufficient engagement, language learning can enhance specific domains of cognition such as the executive functions. These results extend the understanding of cognitive reserve and its augmentation through targeted interventions, setting a foundation for future investigations.

A suicide attentional bias as implicit cognitive marker of suicide vulnerability in a high-risk sample.

Introduction: Suicide risk assessment based on self-report questionnaires is considered as problematic because risk states are dynamic and at-risk individuals may conceal suicidal intentions for several reasons. Therefore, recent research efforts increasingly focus on implicit risk markers such as the suicide attentional bias (SAB) measured with the Suicide Stroop Task (SST). However, most SST studies failed to demonstrate a SAB in individuals with suicide risk and repeatedly demonstrated insufficient psychometrics of the SST. This study aimed to investigate a SAB using a modified SST (M-SST) and to test its psychometric properties. Method: We compared n = 61 healthy controls and a high-risk inpatient sample of n = 40 suicide ideators and n = 40 suicide attempters regarding interference scores of positive, negative and suicide-related words. Interference scores were calculated by subtracting the mean reaction time (mean RT) of the neutral words from the mean RT of the suicide-related words (mean RT Suicide -mean RT Neutral), resulting in a suicide-specific interference score. Similarly, interference scores were calculated for the positive and negative words by subtracting the mean RT of neutral words from the mean RT of positive and negative words. Results: A Group × Interference ANOVA showed a significant interaction effect (p <.001, ηp2 = .09), indicating that group effects significantly vary across interference type. Post hoc comparisons revealed that both ideators and attempters demonstrated greater interferences only for suicide-related words compared to healthy controls, indicating a SAB in patients, while a difference between ideators and attempters was lacking. The suicide interference score classified with an AUC = 0.73, 95% CI [0.65 - 0.82], p <.001, between controls and patients with STBs. The M-SST demonstrated good internal consistency and convergent validity. Discussion: The study adds evidence to the assumptions of the Cognitive Model of Suicide, viewing a SAB as a cognitive marker of suicide vulnerability independently of the engagement in suicidal behavior. The results' clinical implications are discussed in the context of recommended intervention strategies during an acute suicidal state. Future studies with the M-SST should include non-suicidal patient controls to investigate whether a SAB is uniquely related to suicidality.

A computational account of conflict processing during mental imagery.

Previous studies examining conflict processing within the context of a color-word Stroop task have focused on both stimulus and response conflicts. However, it has been unclear whether conflict can emerge independently of stimulus conflict. In this study, a novel arrow-gaze mental-rotation Stroop task was introduced to explore the interplay between conflict processing and mental rotation. A modelling approach was utilized to provide a process-level account of the findings. The results of our Stroop task indicate that conflict can emerge from mental rotation in the absence of stimulus conflict. The strength of this imagery conflict effect decreases and even reverses as mental rotation angles increase. Additionally, it was observed that participants responded more quickly and with greater accuracy to small rather than large face orientations. A comparison of three conflict diffusion models-the diffusion model for conflict tasks (DMC), the dual-stage two-phase model (DSTP), and the shrinking spotlight model (SSP)-yielded consistent support for the DSTP over the DMC and SSP in the majority of instances. The DSTP account of the experimental results revealed an increased nondecision time with increasing mental rotation, a reduction in interference from incompatible stimuli, and an improved drift rate in response selection phase, which suggests enhanced cognitive control. The findings from the model-based analysis provide evidence for a novel interaction between cognitive control and mental rotation.

Social anxiety modulating early processing for social threat words: an ERP study.

Even though some recent research revealed individuals with HSA typically display enhanced processing in the early stages of emotional information processing due to hypervigilance and vulnerability to negative stimuli, it is still unclear whether social anxiety affects the time course underlying processing bias for emotional stimuli. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore the early stage of processing social threat stimuli in high social anxiety (HSA) individuals by recording RTs and EEG data in the emotional Stroop task. Behavioral data showed that the HSA group responded to the threat words faster than neutral words (i.e. negative bias), but no emotional effects in the low social anxiety (LSA) group. Although the P1 component did not show any early effects, ERP data exhibited an enhanced N170 for HSA than for LSA groups. Threat words elicited larger N170 than neutral words in the LSA group only; this emotion effect was not evident in the HSA group. These findings indicated that social anxiety modulates early processing for social threat words. This study revealed the neural mechanisms underlying early emotional processing in individuals with social anxiety, providing insights for the evaluation and intervention of social anxiety.

Adapting Minds: Exploring Cognition to Threatened Stimuli in the Post-COVID-19 Landscape Comparing Old and New Concerns about Pandemic.

The global population has been significantly affected by the pandemic in terms of physical and mental health. According to transactional theory, individuals have undergone an adaptation process influenced by cognitive control abilities. Emotional responses to COVID-19-related stimuli may interfere with top-down attentional processes, thereby hindering adaptation. This study aimed to investigate the impact of COVID-19-related stimuli on attentional processing and to determine whether psychological factors could modulate these effects. A sample of 96 healthy undergraduate students participated in an emotional Stroop task in which they were presented with a series of stimuli, including both neutral and negative COVID-19-related as well as non-COVID-19 stimuli. COVID-19-related PTSD, as an index of distress (PTSS), and trait anxiety were evaluated. Results showed that participants were more accurate in identifying COVID-19-related stimuli compared to non-COVID-19 stimuli. Being female and having higher retrospective PTSS scores related to COVID-19 were predictive of faster reaction times for both neutral and negative COVID-19-related stimuli. This heightened attentional bias toward COVID-19-related stimuli suggests that individuals may be more sensitive to stimuli associated with the pandemic. The results suggest that the association between COVID-19 stimuli and attentional biases extends beyond emotional valence, being retrospectively influenced by mental health, suggesting potential pathways to future mental health challenges.

Attentional Differences Between Males and Females for Emojis During the Emotional Stroop Task.

Introduction Cognitive load can be intensified by emotional components such as emotive words or facial expressions. Sex differences influence both emotional and cognitive functions for emotional facial expressions. Emojis, in contrast to human faces, serve as digital cues conveying emotional nuances in communication. The present study aimed to compare attentional differences prompted by emojis. Methods This study aimed to compare attentional differences in males and females elicited by emojis in 100 healthy adults (50 males and 50 females) within the age group of 18 to 40 years (mean ± SD: 27.87 ± 5.37 years) while performing the emotional Stroop task (EST). The EST comprised emojis depicting four emotions (happy, fear, sad, and angry) and emotionally charged words conveying similar emotions. An independent sample t-test was used to compare the reaction times among males and females. Results Results showed males had significantly longer reaction times than females across all task conditions. Both genders exhibited significant differences in reaction times across task conditions, except inhibition. Overall, reaction times increased notably from neutral to incongruent conditions for both genders. This suggests that response times increased significantly from neutral to incongruent conditions. Conclusion Emojis introduced in the EST revealed gender-related differences in attentional processing. This study showed the greater proficiency of females in emotional processing during EST compared to males. These findings contribute to our understanding of how gender is associated with cognitive responses to emotional stimuli in digital communication contexts.

The effect of spatial distance on numerical distance processing.

The close relationship between numerical and spatial representation has been widely studied. However, little is known regarding the influence of spatial distance on the processing of numerical distance. The purpose of this study was to examine this relationship by employing a modified numerical Stroop task, in which the spatial distance was either congruent or incongruent with the numerical distance. That is, numerical and spatial distances were either compatible with each other or incompatible. Experiment 1 demonstrated that when participants were directly requested to assess the numerical distance, spatial distance influenced task performance, thereby revealing a novel effect-the spatial-numerical distance congruency effect. Experiment 2 demonstrated that these relations are asymmetrical and revealed that numerical distance did not influence spatial distance when the numerical distance was task-irrelevant. Experiment 3 revealed that the spatial-numerical distance congruency effect can also be obtained automatically by employing a numerical comparison task, which is considered a marker for indirect distance processing. In addition, also tested across the three experiments was whether spatial alignment on the screen (i.e., left, centre, and right) can influence the spatial-numerical distance congruency effect. Results revealed that when numbers were presented more naturally (on the left and centre of the screen), a larger effect was obtained compared with when stimuli were presented on the right side. Together, these findings shed new light regarding the relationship between numerical distance and spatial distance and whether and how these aspects influence each other.

Modulation of brain function and antidepressant effects by transcranial alternating current stimulation in patients with major depressive disorder: Evidence from ERP.

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is an emerging non-invasive neuromodulation treatment for major depressive disorder (MDD), but its mechanism remains unclear. Therefore, we evaluated the effects of tACS on event-related potentials (ERP) based on a randomized controlled study. All patients were divided into two groups to receive either 20 sessions 77.5Hz-tACS or 20 sessions of sham stimulation during 4 weeks. The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale for Depression -17 item (HAMD-17) and ERP during face-word Stroop task were recorded before and after the treatment (the fourth weekend). Our findings indicate a significant alleviation of depressive symptoms after tACS. For the behavioral performance, sham group showed a significant decrease in reaction time to the sad incongruent condition and an increase in accuracy to the happy condition. The active group showed an increase in accuracy to the incongruent condition. ERP analysis revealed that tACS significantly shortened the latency of P2 to incongruent condition, decreased the amplitude and prolonged the latency of N2 to negative condition. These ERP alterations suggest a potential rectification of negative bias and enhancement of cognitive functioning in patients with MDD, offering insights into the antidepressant mechanisms of tACS.

Inhibition changes across the lifespan: experimental evidence from the Stroop task.

Individuals constantly exert inhibitory control over their thoughts and behaviors to plan actions that compete with habits and impulses. Cognitive inhibition enhances the selection of task-relevant stimuli and is closely related to neural changes that occur across the lifespan. Since few studies have focused on the entire lifespan, this study aimed to assess cognitive inhibition abilities in a sample of 425 healthy participants (age range: 7-88 years) using the Stroop task. The participants were grouped according to age into children, adolescents, young adults, adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults. A series of ANOVAs considered Group as the independent variable and Performance indices as the dependent variables. The children did not show an interference effect (Stroop effect), likely due to the lack of an automated reading process as a consequence of ongoing brain maturation. Adolescents and young adults performed significantly faster than older adults did. The results indicate that response speed reaches its peak during adolescence and young adulthood and then slightly decreases until older age. Nevertheless, when compared with the other groups, only older adults showed significant differences in the Stroop effect, suggesting that inhibitory abilities remain relatively consistent throughout adulthood but rapidly worsen in recent years due to the physiological decline in cognitive and brain functioning associated with aging.

Comparative Neurological and Behavioral Assessment of Central and Peripheral Stimulation Technologies for Induced Pain and Cognitive Tasks.

Pain is a multifaceted, multisystem disorder that adversely affects neuro-psychological processes. This study compares the effectiveness of central stimulation (transcranial direct current stimulation-tDCS over F3/F4) and peripheral stimulation (transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation-TENS over the median nerve) in pain inhibition during a cognitive task in healthy volunteers and to observe potential neuro-cognitive improvements. Eighty healthy participants underwent a comprehensive experimental protocol, including cognitive assessments, the Cold Pressor Test (CPT) for pain induction, and tDCS/TENS administration. EEG recordings were conducted pre- and post-intervention across all conditions. The protocol for this study was categorized into four groups: G1 (control), G2 (TENS), G3 (anodal-tDCS), and G4 (cathodal-tDCS). Paired t-tests (p < 0.05) were conducted to compare Pre-Stage, Post-Stage, and neuromodulation conditions, with t-values providing insights into effect magnitudes. The result showed a reduction in pain intensity with TENS (p = 0.002, t-value = -5.34) and cathodal-tDCS (p = 0.023, t-value = -5.08) and increased pain tolerance with TENS (p = 0.009, t-value = 4.98) and cathodal-tDCS (p = 0.001, t-value = 5.78). Anodal-tDCS (p = 0.041, t-value = 4.86) improved cognitive performance. The EEG analysis revealed distinct neural oscillatory patterns across the groups. Specifically, G2 and G4 showed delta-power reductions, while G3 observed an increase. Moreover, G2 exhibited increased theta-power in the occipital region during CPT and Post-Stages. In the alpha-band, G2, G3, and G4 had reductions Post-Stage, while G1 and G3 increased. Additionally, beta-power increased in the frontal region for G2 and G3, contrasting with a reduction in G4. Furthermore, gamma-power globally increased during CPT1, with G1, G2, and G3 showing reductions Post-Stage, while G4 displayed a global decrease. The findings confirm the efficacy of TENS and tDCS as possible non-drug therapeutic alternatives for cognition with alleviation from pain.

Temporal Course of Interference Control from Early to Late Young Adulthood: An ERP Study.

In the present study, we aimed to investigate the neural dynamics of interference control using event-related potentials (ERPs) to reveal time course of interference control from the beginning to the end of young adulthood. Three groups of participants aged 19-21, 23-27 and 28-44 performed a Stroop task. The results revealed age differences in both accuracy and ERP amplitudes during all aspects of interreference control processing that reflect selective attention (P2), conflict monitoring (N2), conflict evaluation (P3) and interference control (N450). Both younger groups made more errors on incongruent trials compared to participants in their early 30s. The presence of higher P2 and N2 amplitudes, diminished P3 and again higher N450 amplitudes in participants in their early 20s points to a shortage of available resources for top-down control at this age. These results are in accordance with structural and functional studies that show that development of the frontoparietal network, which underlies interference control, continues after adolescence. While brain mechanisms are still developing, the use of accompanying cognitive abilities is still not optimal. The findings that change in neural dynamics and related performance continues into early adulthood challenge current models of cognitive development and call for new directions in developmental theorizing.

Brain activity during Stroop task performance at age 74 after exposure to the Dutch famine during early gestation.

OBJECTIVE: Poorer performance on the Stroop task has been reported after prenatal famine exposure at age 58, potentially indicating cognitive decline. We investigated whether brain activation during Stroop task performance at age 74 differed between individuals exposed to famine prenatally, individuals born before and individuals conceived after the famine. METHOD: In the Dutch famine birth cohort, we performed a Stroop task fMRI study of individuals exposed (n = 22) or unexposed (born before (n = 18) or conceived after (n = 25)) to famine in early gestation. We studied group differences in task-related mean activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and posterior parietal cortex (PPC). Additionally, we explored potential disconnectivity of the DLPFC using psychophysiological interaction analysis. RESULTS: We observed similar activation patterns in the DLPFC, ACC and PPC in individuals born before and individuals exposed to famine, while individuals conceived after famine had generally higher activation patterns. However, activation patterns were not significantly different between groups. Task-related decreases in connectivity were observed between left DLPFC-left PPC and right DLPFC-right PPC, but were not significantly different between groups. CONCLUSIONS: Although not statistically significant, the observed patterns of activation may reflect a combined effect of general brain aging and prenatal famine exposure.

Association of screen-based sedentary behavior with executive function in school-aged children: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study.

Screen-based sedentary behavior (SSB) is a significant risk factor for the health of school-aged children, and guidelines recommend limiting SSB to 2 hr per day. This study aimed to examine association and potential mechanisms between SSB and executive function (EF) by comparing Stroop performance and frontal hemodynamic responses between children with and without excessive SSB. A total of 70 children aged 10 to 15 years were recruited and divided into two groups: excessive screen time (≥2 hr/day; n = 35; ES group) and normal screen time (<2 hr/day; n = 35; NS group). The Chinese version of the Adolescent Sedentary Activities Questionnaire was used to assess SSB, whereas EF was evaluated using the Stroop task. The frontal hemodynamic responses during the Stroop task were measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. The results indicated that the ES group had lower accuracy, longer reaction times, and greater activation in the bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and left pre-supplementary motor area (Pre-SMA) compared with the NS group. Furthermore, significant correlations were observed between Stroop performance and cortical activation in the left DLPFC and Pre-SMA. These findings demonstrate that excessive SSB is associated with poor EF, which may be explained by a decrease in neural efficiency of the left DLPFC and Pre-SMA.

Ironic processes of concentration and suppression under pressure: A study on rifle shooting in Norwegian elite biathletes.

In rifle shooting, suppressing unwanted thoughts can backfire in one's performance, causing athletes to behave contrary to their desired intention and further deteriorate their performance. PURPOSE: This study examined how priming attentional and negative cues affected participants' shooting performances toward ironic error targets under cognitive load conditions in Stroop task across two experiments. METHODS: Semi-elite biathletes (Experiment 1, n = 10; Experiment 2, n = 9) participated in the study. The study used a within-subject quasi-experimental design, particularly a one-way repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance and a 2 × 2 fully repeated measures analysis of variance, to determine the participants' hit rates and shooting response times (RTs). In both experiments, the participants completed the reverse-Stroop-based target shooting performance under low- and high-cognitive load conditions while receiving frequent priming attentional and negative cues. RESULTS: The findings from Experiment 1 suggest that regulating repetitive priming attentional thoughts is efficacious in mitigating the likelihood of ironic performance errors and interference effects. The results of Experiment 2 show that repetitive priming negative cues resulted in negligible ironic error hit rates and slower RTs in target hits under high-cognitive load conditions. The Bayesian analyses provided evidence supporting the null hypotheses. CONCLUSION: Trying to control repetitive priming attentional and negative thoughts reduces ironic performance errors to a similar degree under cognitive load conditions among biathletes, regardless of interference effects. Further research is needed to determine the effectiveness of suppressing task-relevant negative instructions in reducing the likelihood of ironic performance errors under pressure.

The Effect of Rhythmic Audio-Visual Stimulation on Inhibitory Control: An ERP Study.

Inhibitory control, as an essential cognitive ability, affects the development of higher cognitive functions. Rhythmic perceptual stimulation has been used to improve cognitive abilities. It is unclear, however, whether it can be used to improve inhibitory control. This study used the Go/NoGo task and the Stroop task to assess various levels of inhibitory control using rhythmic audio-visual stimuli as the stimulus mode. Sixty subjects were randomly divided into three groups to receive 6 Hz, 10 Hz, and white noise stimulation for 30 min. Two tasks were completed by each subject both before and after the stimulus. Before and after the task, closed-eye resting EEG data were collected. The results showed no differences in behavioral and EEG measures of the Go/NoGo task among the three groups. While both 6 Hz and 10 Hz audio-visual stimulation reduced the conflict effect in the Stroop task, only 6 Hz audio-visual stimulation improved the amplitude of the N2 component and decreased the conflict score. Although rhythmic audio-visual stimulation did not enhance response inhibition, it improved conflict inhibition.