On the role of familiarity and developmental exposure in music-evoked autobiographical memories.

Music-evoked autobiographical memories (MEAMs) are typically elicited by music that listeners have heard before. While studies that have directly manipulated music familiarity show that familiar music evokes more MEAMs than music listeners have not heard before, music that is unfamiliar to the listener can also sporadically cue autobiographical memory. Here we examined whether music that sounds familiar even without previous exposure can produce spontaneous MEAMs. Cognitively healthy older adults (N = 75, ages 65-80 years) listened to music clips that were chosen by researchers to be either familiar or unfamiliar (i.e., varying by prior exposure). Participants then disclosed whether the clip elicited a MEAM and later provided self-reported familiarity ratings for each. Self-reported familiarity was positively associated with the occurrence of MEAMs in response to familiar, but not the unfamiliar, music. The likelihood of reporting MEAMs for music released during youth (i.e., the "reminiscence bump") relative to young adulthood (20-25 years) included both music released during participants' adolescence (14-18 years) and middle childhood (5-9 years) once self-reported familiarity was accounted for. These developmental effects could not be accounted for by music-evoked affect. Overall, our results suggest that the phenomenon of MEAMs hinges upon both perceptions of familiarity and prior exposure.

Shape of the past: Revealing detail arcs while narrating memories of autobiographical life events across the lifespan.

Humans can remember past autobiographical events through extended narratives. How these narrated memories typically unfold, however, remains largely unexplored. We evaluated how autobiographical memory details typically come together in a sample of 235 healthy young, middle-aged, and older adults. We found that details providing background knowledge followed a U shape, such that they were most prevalent in the initial moments of remembering before falling and then rising near the conclusion of the memory's retelling. Details about the scene of the memory declined over time, whereas other event-specific, unique details about the main features of the event followed an inverted U shape, peaking around the midpoint of a remembered event's narration. Whereas most detail arcs were not significantly affected by older age, older adults showed a significant underuse of details describing the scene early in memory retrieval. Our findings suggest that behind the ability to narrate the remembered past is a normative waxing and waning of the details that make autobiographical memories.

Autobiographical Memory in Feeding and Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review.

INTRODUCTION: Prominent eating disorders (EDs) theories identify a critical relationship between body and self. One of the ways to study this relationship is through autobiographical memories (AMs). The present review aimed to evaluate the studies that investigated AM in patients with EDs. METHODS: A search of PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Scopus databases was performed to identify relevant articles. Of the 57,113 studies found, 25,016 were not duplicated. After screening, 27 articles were included. RESULTS: The studies had some methodological flaws: none of the articles was a randomized control trial and the sample sizes were small. Nevertheless, important evidence emerged because all studies showed that patients with EDs have impaired AM function. This is because the way patients with EDs remember and define themselves is through an allocentric perspective associated with the gazes of others whose role has an impact on AM, body shape, and self. CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, this is the first systematic review to examine AM in patients with EDs. Future research is needed in EDs to expand knowledge about the relationship between the body and the self.

Unpleasant emotions and task-unrelated thoughts and their associations with amygdala activity during emotional distraction: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study.

Previous emotion regulation studies revealed that emotional distraction decreases unpleasant emotions. This study examined whether distraction tasks decrease unpleasant task-unrelated thoughts (TUTs) and unpleasant emotions when recalling stressful daily interpersonal events. Amygdala activity was examined to assess implicit emotional changes using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The behavioral data of 20 university students (mean age: 20.35 ± 1.42 years; range: 18-24 years) and fMRI data of 18 students were examined. As an emotion induction procedure, participants initially freely recalled memories of daily stressful interpersonal events and then responded to a series of questions about their recalled memories presented on a monitor. In the distraction experiment, the questions were re-represented as an emotional stimulation; a distraction task (nonconstant or constant finger tapping) or rest condition was then performed, and ratings were given for attentional state, thought types conceived during the tasks, and emotional state. Decreases in unpleasant emotions and TUTs were defined as distraction effects. We found that unpleasant TUTs decreased in the nonconstant relative to rest condition (p < .05). Furthermore, increased right amygdala activation positively correlated with unpleasant emotions, and bilateral amygdala activation correlated with unpleasant TUTs only in the rest condition, indicating the existence of amygdala activation associated with unpleasant emotions and thoughts. However, such associations were not under nonconstant or constant conditions, indicating distraction effects. Notably, this study showed that emotional distraction can decrease the degree of unpleasant emotions and the occurrence of unpleasant thoughts regarding common daily emotions.

Decoding episodic autobiographical memory in naturalistic virtual reality.

Episodic autobiographical memory (EAM) is a long-term memory system of personally experienced events with their context - what, where, when - and subjective elements, e.g., emotions, thoughts, or self-reference. EAM formation has rarely been studied in a controlled, real-life-like paradigm, and there is no predictive model of long-term retrieval from self-rated subjective experience at encoding. The present longitudinal study, with three surprise free recall memory tests immediately, one-week and one-month after encoding, investigated incidental encoding of EAM in an immersive virtual environment where 30 participants either interacted with or observed specific events of varying emotional valences with simultaneous physiological recordings. The predictive analyses highlight the temporal dynamics of the predictors of EAM from subjective ratings at encoding: common characteristics related to sense of remembering and infrequency of real-life encounter of the event were identified over time, but different variables become relevant at different time points, such as the emotion and mental imagery or prospective aspects. This dynamic and time-dependent role of memory predictors challenges traditional views of a uniform influence of encoding factors over time. Current evidence for the multiphasic nature of memory formation points to the role of different mechanisms at play during encoding but also consolidation and subsequent retrieval.

Negative life events predict depressive trends: the moderating effect of overgeneral autobiographical memory and early parenting behaviour.

The Emerging Adulthood is a complex and chaotic period and depression is one of the main psychological health problems during this period. Overgeneral autobiographical memory (OGM) is prevalent among patients with clinical depression. However, the prediction of OGM in groups with non-clinical depression and its influencing mechanisms remain inconclusive. Studies have shown that OGM and early parenting behaviour are vulnerable factors of depression in emerging adulthood, which may be triggered by negative life events. Our longitudinal study included 241 participants (Mage = 21.88 years). At baseline, participants completed measures of current negative life events, depression, early parenting behaviour and an autobiographical memory test. Thereafter, they were tracked for depression every 35 days. We used the latent class growth model to differentiate levels and trends of depression among non-clinical participants. The analysis showed that the effect of negative life events on depression was moderated by OGM and early parenting behaviour. However, this moderating effect was found only in the low-risk depression group. Our findings indicate that early parenting behaviour might account for the different mechanisms of OGM production in non-clinical groups. Moreover, it underlines the importance of OGM and early parenting behaviour as potential predictors of future depression in non-clinical groups.

Hooking the Self Onto the Past: How Positive Autobiographical Memory Retrieval Benefits People With Social Anxiety.

Do people with social anxiety (SA) benefit from positive memory retrieval that heightens self-relevant meaning? In this preregistered study, an analog sample of 255 participants with self-reported clinically significant symptoms of SA were randomly assigned to retrieve and process a positive social-autobiographical memory by focusing on either its self-relevant meaning (deep processing) or its perceptual features (superficial processing). Participants were then socially excluded and instructed to reimagine their positive memory. Analyses revealed that participants assigned to the deep processing condition experienced significantly greater improvements than participants in the superficial processing condition in positive affect, social safeness, and positive beliefs about others during initial memory retrieval and in negative and positive beliefs about the self following memory reactivation during recovery from exclusion. These novel findings highlight the potential utility of memory-based interventions for SA that work by "hooking" self-meaning onto recollections of positive interpersonal experiences that elicit feelings of social acceptance.

Cognitive vulnerabilities and depressed mood in acquired brain injury.

ABSTRACTAcquired Brain Injury (ABI), an important cause of long-term disability, is associated with increased rates of depression in addition to common cognitive and physical consequences. Past research has linked post-ABI depression to injury severity (e.g., extent of physical or cognitive impairment) and premorbid mood problems. In the general (non-ABI) population, depression is associated with cognitive vulnerabilities that have informed the development of psychological interventions. In this observational study in a heterogeneous sample of individuals with chronic stage ABI, we examine two cognitive vulnerabilities - dysfunctional attitudes (DAs) and autobiographical memory specificity - and explore whether these are linked to depression symptoms and ongoing cognitive difficulties as in the general population. Compared to control participants, individuals with an ABI demonstrated increased endorsement of DAs and reduced specificity of autobiographical memory recall. Within the ABI group, cognitive vulnerability-depression symptom correlations were detected for an explicit measure of DAs, but not for a more implicit DA measure or for autobiographical memory specificity. While individual differences in injury severity and other factors likely obscured subtle relationships between mood and cognitive vulnerabilities, evidence of these vulnerabilities may be relevant to changes in identity and psychological interventions that target low mood in ABI.

Involuntary Autobiographical Memory in Alzheimer's Disease: A Double-Edged Way of Remembering the Past?

Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by severe memory alterations, affecting especially memories of personal past events. Until now, autobiographical memory impairments have been characterized using formal memory assessments, requiring patients to strategically and deliberately recall past events. However, contrary to this highly cognitively demanding mode of memory recall, autobiographical memories frequently come to mind unexpectedly based on automatic associative processes. The involuntary recall of personal memories is effortless and possibly represents a preserved way for AD patients to remember past events. Objective: This study aimed to investigate involuntary autobiographical memory in AD patients and compare the characteristics of these memories with those of healthy controls. Methods: Involuntary autobiographical memory was measured in 24 AD patients and 24 matched control participants using self-report measures. Participants were asked to report the frequency with which involuntary autobiographical memories were experienced in their daily life and to describe and self-assess one example of an involuntary memory. Results: We showed that AD patients and control participants did not differ in terms of the frequency or subjective characteristics of their involuntary autobiographical memories in daily life, except for feelings of intrusiveness. Compared to control participants, AD patients reported their involuntary autobiographical memories as being more intrusive. In addition, more negative and vague involuntary autobiographical memories were associated with greater depressive symptoms. Conclusions: These findings open up a new avenue for research to better understand the extent to which involuntary autobiographical memory might be preserved in AD patients and why these memories may in turn become intrusive to patients.

The influence of event similarity on the detailed recall of autobiographical memories.

Memories for life events are thought to be organised based on their relationships with one another, affecting the order in which events are recalled such that similar events tend to be recalled together. However, less is known about how detailed recall for a given event is affected by its associations to other events. Here, we used a cued autobiographical memory recall task where participants verbally recalled events corresponding to personal photographs. Importantly, we characterised the temporal, spatial, and semantic associations between each event to assess how similarity between adjacently cued events affected detailed recall. We found that participants provided more non-episodic details for cued events when the preceding event was both semantically similar and either temporally or spatially dissimilar. However, similarity along time, space, or semantics between adjacent events did not affect the episodic details recalled. We interpret this by considering organisation at the level of a life narrative, rather than individual events. When recalling a stream of personal events, we may feel obligated to justify seeming discrepancies between adjacent events that are semantically similar, yet simultaneously temporally or spatially dissimilar - to do so, we provide additional supplementary detail to help maintain global coherence across the events in our lives.

Gender Effect on Neural Correlates of Autobiographical False Memories for Brand Images.

Introduction: This study investigated the effect of autobiographical brand images on false memory formation in adults, using the category associate's procedure. The study also applied the event-related potential (ERP) approach to explore neural correlates of false memory and gender differences in false memory recall of brand images. Methods: Eight categories of autobiographical brand images were implied in a category associates' procedure to investigate false memory recall. ERP data were obtained from 24 participants (12 females and 12 males) using a 32-channel amplifier while subjects were performing the memory task. Subsequently, gender effects on behavioral responses and neural correlates of false and true memory recalls were statistically compared using peak amplitude and latency of P300, late positive complex, and FN400 components. Results: The results showed that left frontal areas in women were more activated in response to false memories compared to men, however, the men's brain responses were faster. In addition, the men's brain responses to false memories were widely distributed mainly over frontal, parietal, and occipital areas. Conclusion: Males and females differently process autobiographical brand images. Nevertheless, the differential neural process may not influence their recognition rate or response time.

Flashbulb and first-hand memories for campus closings due to COVID-19: consistency and change.

Flashbulb memories (FBM) refer to the vivid and detailed retrieval of the reception context of a highly salient event. We examined FBMs and personal memories for one college's sudden transition to remote learning due to COVID-19. We explored whether the announcement of the campus' closure resulted in FBMs, how respondents felt about the decision, and the impacts of the decision. Employing a two-wave longitudinal survey conducted in March and May 2020, participants responded to questions regarding learning about the campus' closure and a control memory (an event from the same week chosen by participants). Participant reports suggested they did form FBMs, and FBMs were more consistent over time than control memories. Confidence did not differ across memory types. Additionally, we observed an initial strong positive response to the decision to close the campus - a sentiment that intensified over time. Lastly, participants' emotional responses transitioned from negative feelings in the first wave of testing to more neutral feelings in the second. This work offers a unique exploration of FBMs within the broader context of a global health crisis that intruded into daily life, effectively merging the typically public and distant nature of flashbulb events with first-hand, personal experience.

Gender differences and the association between the phenomenological characteristics of autobiographical memories and psychopathic traits in a university student sample.

The study aimed to analyse the relationship between the dimensions of the triarchic model of psychopathy (meanness, boldness and disinhibition) and the phenomenological characteristics of Autobiographical Memory (AM) in a sample of university students, examining potential gender differences. Participants (N = 260; 55.4% women; aged 18-25) performed an AM task, followed by the Autobiographical Memory Characteristics Questionnaire and the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure. We found gender differences, with men scoring higher than women in meanness and disinhibition as well as in precision, accessibility, sharing and narrative coherence of AM. Correlations showed that boldness was negatively related to the valence and emotional intensity of the memory. Meanness was positively associated with precision, sensory details, accessibility, sharing, narrative coherence, distancing and preoccupation with emotions and negatively with recollection. Disinhibition was positively related to precision, sensory details and accessibility and negatively to intensity, distancing and preoccupation with emotions. Our results suggest that psychopathic traits could predict certain characteristics of AM, highlighting the predictive value of meanness, especially regarding memory quality characteristics (e.g., precision), as well as disinhibition, concerning the emotional content (e.g., preoccupation with emotions). Our results contribute to understanding psychopathy through an autobiographical perspective, showing how psychopathic traits may shape how people remember personal events.

Effects of social anxiety and self-schemas on the impact and meaningfulness of positive versus negative social autobiographical memories.

OBJECTIVE: Social anxiety is characterized by maladaptive self-schemas about being socially undesirable. Self-schemas are deeply held beliefs which are derived from negative autobiographical memories of painful social experiences. In contrast to the plethora of past research on negative memories in social anxiety, almost no research has investigated objectively positive social autobiographical memories. In this preregistered study, we examined the effects of social anxiety and self-schemas on the appraised impact and meaningfulness of retrieved positive versus negative social autobiographical memories. METHOD: Participants recruited via Prolific (final n = 343) were randomized to one of two conditions in which they were instructed to retrieve, orally narrate, and appraise a positive or negative social autobiographical memory of a specific experience from their personal past where they felt either valued or unvalued, respectively. RESULTS: Results demonstrated that participants rated their positive memories as more impactful and meaningful than negative memories overall, but this effect was reversed for participants who endorsed having either stronger negative self-schemas or greater social anxiety symptoms, for whom negative memories were more impactful. Additionally, participants who endorsed having stronger positive self-schemas rated their negative memories as significantly less impactful and their positive memories as nearly more impactful. CONCLUSION: Together, these results elucidate how self-schemas and social anxiety are related to autobiographical memory appraisals, paving the way for future research on memory-based therapeutic interventions for social anxiety disorder.

Beyond the episodic-semantic continuum: the multidimensional model of mental representations.

Tulving's concept of mental time travel (MTT), and the related distinction of episodic and semantic memory, have been highly influential contributions to memory research, resulting in a wealth of findings and a deeper understanding of the neurocognitive correlates of memory and future thinking. Many models have conceptualized episodic and semantic representations as existing on a continuum that can help to account for various hybrid forms. Nevertheless, in most theories, MTT remains distinctly associated with episodic representations. In this article, we review existing models of memory and future thinking, and critically evaluate whether episodic representations are distinct from other types of explicit representations, including whether MTT as a neurocognitive capacity is uniquely episodic. We conclude by proposing a new framework, the Multidimensional Model of Mental Representations (MMMR), which can parsimoniously account for the range of past, present and future representations the human mind is capable of creating. This article is part of the theme issue 'Elements of episodic memory: lessons from 40 years of research'.

How Cultural Practices Influence the Understanding and Emotional Intensity of Mexican Children's Memories of Death Events.

This study assessed whether a sample of 43 children in Puebla, Mexico would show the Fading Affect Bias (FAB) for memories of the death of loved ones or pets and for general negative memories. FAB is a phenomenon in which emotional intensity associated with unpleasant memories fades faster than affect in pleasant memories. Mexican children showed FAB across negative and death memories. Younger children showed lower fading for general negative memories when compared to older children. A second aim of this work assessed whether younger (ages 4.83-9) and older (ages 10-13) children in Mexico would show biological and spiritual understanding of death, and findings indicated that Mexican children's understanding included both biological and spiritual subcomponents. Younger children showed lower comprehension of the death subcomponents Inevitability and Irreversibility. Higher depression, anxiety, and social stress scores as measured with the BASC-2 predicted lower FAB, lateralized to negative memories.

Cerebellar Contributions to Traumatic Autobiographical Memory in People with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating mental health condition characterized by recurrent re-experiencing of traumatic events. Despite increasing evidence suggesting that the cerebellum is involved in PTSD pathophysiology, it remains unclear whether this involvement is related to symptoms directly resulting from previous trauma exposure, such as involuntary re-experiencing of the traumatic events, or reflects a broader cerebellar engagement in negative affective states. In this study, we investigated the specific role of the cerebellum in PTSD by employing a script reactivation paradigm with personalized traumatic and sad autobiographical memories in 28 individuals diagnosed with chronic PTSD. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data were collected while participants listened to their own autobiographical narratives recounted by a third person. Activation in the right cerebellar lobule VI was uniquely associated with traumatic autobiographical recall and was parametrically modulated by the severity of re-experiencing symptoms. In contrast, cerebellar Crus II showed increased activation during both traumatic and sad autobiographical recall, suggesting a broader involvement in processing negative emotions. Our findings highlight the unique contribution of the right cerebellar lobule VI in the processing of traumatic autobiographical memories, potentially through its engagement in low-level representation of sensory and emotional aspects of traumatic events.

What is autonoetic consciousness? Examining what underlies subjective experience in memory and future thinking.

Autonoetic consciousness is the awareness that an event we remember is one that we ourselves experienced. It is a defining feature of our subjective experience of remembering and imagining future events. Given its subjective nature, there is ongoing debate about how to measure it. Our goal was to develop a framework to identify cognitive markers of autonoetic consciousness. Across two studies (N = 342) we asked young, healthy participants to provide written descriptions of two autobiographical memories, two plausible future events, and an experimentally encoded video. Participants then rated their subjective experience during remembering and imagining. Exploratory Factor Analysis of this data uncovered the latent variables underlying autonoetic consciousness across these different events. In contrast to work that emphasizes the distinction between Remember and Know as being key to autonoetic consciousness, Re-experiencing, and Pre-experiencing for future events, were consistently identified as core markers of autonoetic consciousness. This was alongside Mental Time Travel in all types of memory events, but not for imagining the future. In addition, our factor analysis allows us to demonstrate directly - for the first time - the features of mental imagery associated with the sense of autonoetic consciousness in autobiographical memory; vivid, visual imagery from a first-person perspective. Finally, with regression analysis, the emergent factor structure of autonoetic consciousness was able to predict the richness of autobiographical memory texts, but not of episodic recall of the encoded video. This work provides a novel way to assess autonoetic consciousness, illustrates how autonoetic consciousness manifests differently in memory and imagination and defines the mental representations intrinsic to this process.

Cortical hubs of highly superior autobiographical memory.

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM) is a rare form of enhanced memory in which individuals demonstrate an extraordinary ability to remember details of their personal lives with high levels of accuracy and vividness. Neuroimaging studies have identified brain regions - specifically, midline areas within the default network - associated with remembering events from one's past. Extending this research on the neural underpinnings of autobiographical memory, the present study utilizes graph theory analyses to compare functional brain connectivity in a cohort of HSAM (n = 12) and control participants (n = 29). We perform seed-based analysis in resting-state fMRI data to assess how specific cortical regions within the autobiographical memory network are differentially connected in HSAM individuals. Additionally, we apply a whole-brain connectivity analysis to identify differences in brain hub-network topology associated with enhanced autobiographical memory. Seed-based results show converging patterns of increased connectivity in HSAM across midline areas. Whole-brain analysis also reveals enhanced connectivity across medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortex in HSAM individuals. Together, these results extend prior research, highlighting cortical hubs within the default network associated with enhanced autobiographical memory.

Neuroimaging of autobiographical memory in dementia with Lewy bodies: a story of insula.

Although deficits in learning and retrieving new information are well characterized in dementia with Lewy bodies, autobiographical memory has never been explored in this disease. Yet, autobiographical memory impairments are a pervasive feature of dementia, well characterized in other neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, autobiographical memory corresponds to an extension over time of the self, which we hypothesize is altered in dementia with Lewy bodies and impairment of which could be linked to the insular atrophy occurring from an early stage of the disease. In this study, we sought to characterize autobiographical memory impairments and explore their neural correlates in dementia with Lewy bodies, on the assumption that insular damage could impact the self, including its most elaborate components, such as autobiographical memory. Twenty patients with prodromal to mild dementia with Lewy bodies were selected to participate in this exploratory study along with 20 healthy control subjects. The Autobiographical Interview was used to assess autobiographical memory. Performances were compared between patients and control subjects, and an analysis across life periods and recall conditions was performed. 3D magnetic resonance images were acquired for all participants, and correlational analyses were performed in the patient group using voxel-based morphometry. The behavioural results of the Autobiographical Interview showed that autobiographical memory performances were significantly impaired in dementia with Lewy body patients compared to control subjects in a temporally ungraded manner, for both the free recall and the specific probe conditions (P < 0.0001), though with greater improvement after probing in the patient group. Furthermore, autobiographical memory impairments were correlated with grey matter volume within right insular cortex, temporoparietal junction, precuneus, putamen, left temporal cortex, bilateral parahippocampus and cerebellum, using a threshold of P = 0.005 uncorrected. The behavioural results confirm the existence of temporally ungraded autobiographical memory impairments in dementia with Lewy bodies, from the early stage of the disease. As we expected, neuroimaging analysis revealed a role for the insula and the precuneus in autobiographical memory retrieval, two regions associated with elementary aspects of the self, among other brain regions classically associated with autobiographical memory, such as medial temporal lobe and temporoparietal junction. Our findings provide important insights regarding the involvement of the insula in the self and suggest that insular damage could lead to a global collapse of the self, including its more elaborated components, such as autobiographical memory.