Ultrasonographic Evaluation of the Patellar Tendon in Cyclists, Volleyball Players, and Non-Practitioners of Sports-The Influence of Gender, Age, Height, Dominant Limb, and Level of Physical Activity.

This study was based on the ultrasound evaluation of the patellar tendon dimensions in the anteroposterior and transversal approaches in sports practitioners (cyclists and volleyball players) and non-sports practitioners. Relationships between the patellar tendon length, width, and thickness with gender, age, height, the dominant limb, and level of physical activity were evaluated. The samples included cyclists, volleyball players, and non-sports practitioners between 15 and 25 years old. Individuals were positioned supine with 30 degrees of knee flexion for bilateral measurements. Sports practitioners presented with an increased patellar tendon length and thickness. There were significant differences bilaterally between sports and non-sports practitioners (p < 0.003). The three dimensions of the patellar tendon of both limbs presented correlations with the male gender (0.336 < r < 0.601), and values of moderate-to-strong intensity in the length of the patellar tendon was directly proportional to height (0.520 < r < 0.601). There was a significant difference between the patellar tendon width and age (p < 0.025). Regarding the level of physical activity, significant differences were found between low and high levels in the three dimensions bilaterally (p < 0.004). The study results indicate that gender, age, height, and level of physical activity impact patellar tendon dimensions. However, there are no associations with the dominant limb.

Different but also alike? Ingroup-outgroup phenomena among cyclists and e-scooter riders.

PROBLEM: In many countries, a new road user group, e-scooter riders, share the existing cycling infrastructure. The study aimed to investigate if an individual's status as a cyclist or e-scooter rider affects their social identity and whether it results in ingroup favoritism or outgroup discrimination. METHOD: An online experiment involving 179 cyclists and 64 e-scooter riders was conducted, where they rated the behavior of ingroup or outgroup members in six traffic scenarios. RESULTS: Participants rated dispositional attributions as more causally relevant than situational ones across all traffic scenarios. Cyclists and e-scooter riders were inclined to judge ingroup members' rule violations more harshly than those of outgroup members in terms of dispositional attribution ratings and punishment severity. For situational attributions, few indications of ingroup favoritism were observed for the e-scooter rider group. SUMMARY: Findings suggest initial indications of considerate coexistence, from the perspective of social identity theory, between the two modes of transport, supporting current regulations on the use of cycling infrastructure by e-scooter riders. Indications of ingroup discrimination, however, suggest that safety campaigning may target to promote courtesy within the cyclist and e-scooter rider groups.

Cyclist safety around trams: A market survey.

Tram systems present safety risks to cyclists, however only limited research has explored this topic, of which most has focused on crash and hospital data, and severe crash events. This paper presents the first known cyclist market survey focused specifically on the experience of cyclists related to safety around trams, including unreported incidents and those that did not result in hospital attendance. Findings suggest that track-skid incidents are more common than track-wedge incidents, in contrast to previous research that emphasizes track-wedging as a larger issue than skidding. This is may be explained by the differing outcomes, with track-wedging more likely to result in injury. This research is thus significant in identifying track skidding as a major risk concern, causing a majority of crashes, while also confirming that track wedging is the major severity concern. In the last five years, 21% of respondents were involved in at least one tram-track-related crash. This was less than the share of respondents involved in falls (50%), crashes relating to road defects (36%) or collisions with motor vehicles (29%). However, half of survey respondents (52%) reported cycling on roads with tram tracks for 0-20% of their cycling, which might suggest that tram track-related crash rates are high given that most inner-city cycling occurs on roads without tracks. Track-skidding was found to be associated with wet conditions. Those involved in at least one track-skid in the last five years where more likely to have been cycling more than 3 years, but involvement in track-wedging was more likely amongst those cycling > 10 years and aged < 45 years. Implications for research and practice are suggested.

Elastography of nerves in the wrists of cyclists.

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate changes in the elasticity of the median and ulnar nerves in cyclists. Material and methods: The study included 30 cyclists and 2 non-biking reference groups that included 32 healthy volunteers and 32 individuals with ulnar nerve entrapment neuropathies. All participants underwent physical, ultrasonographic, and elastographic examinations including assessment of nerve cross-sectional area (CSA) and stiffness (SWE). The cyclists' group was tested before and after a 2-hour workout. Results: The values of ulnar nerve CSA and stiffness in Guyon's canal in resting cyclists were 5.30 ± 1.51 mm2 and 49.05 ± 11.18 kPa, respectively. These values were significantly higher than in the healthy volunteers, but not higher than in the nerve entrapment group. Median nerve CSA and stiffness at rest were 9.10 ± 2.61 mm2 and 38.54 ± 14.87 kPa, respectively. Both values were higher than respective values in the healthy group. Cycling induced an increase in all these parameters, although the increase in nerve stiffness was more noticeable than in CSA. Conclusions: The elasticity of the median and ulnar nerve in cyclists remains within normal limits, questioning the belief that cyclists are at risk of nerve palsy in Guyon's canal. However, cycling workout does exert compression, resulting in transient oedema of both nerves. The dynamics of changes was more noticeable in SWE examination than in conventional ultrasound, which may depend on SWE sensitivity.

Bone morphology and physical characteristics of the pro-cyclist hip joint.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to investigate the radiographic findings for the hip joint and hip range of motion in professional cyclists, and to determine their bone morphology and physical characteristics. The effects of physical characteristics on athletic performance were examined in terms of metabolic efficiency using simulation analysis. METHODS: We performed a case-control research study on 22 hips in 11 male professional cyclists (average age 28.5, height 1.73 m, weight 77.6 kg). Thirty hips in 15 healthy male volunteers were selected as controls. As radiographic evaluations, acetabular dysplasia was assessed on standardized radiographs. During physical evaluations, the hip range of motion was examined. We used simulation analysis to investigate the metabolic efficiency in the different cycling forms. RESULTS: The radiographic evaluations showed a significant difference in the incidence of acetabular dysplasia (p = 0.01): 59% (13/22 hips) in the pro-cyclist group versus 10% (3/30 hips) in the control group. The physical evaluations revealed significant differences in the hip internal rotation angle (p = 0.01), with greater ranges of internal rotation in the pro-cyclist group versus the control group. The simulation analyses showed that metabolism was reduced in the cycling form with hip internal rotation, especially in the lower extremities. CONCLUSIONS: Pro-cyclists showed a high frequency of acetabular dysplasia and superior hip internal rotation. According to the cycling model analyses, hip internal rotation allowed pedaling with reduced metabolic power.

Evaluating air pollution exposure among cyclists: Real-time levels of PM2.5 and NO2 and POI impact.

Although cycling has numerous health benefits, the increased breathing volume and lack of protection from exposure to the environment while cycling poses health risks that cannot be disregarded. Previous studies evaluating the exposure of cyclists to air pollution have typically focused on assessing exposure to a single pollutant or exposure concentrations on specific urban routes, and have not performed a comprehensive assessment considering the distribution of cyclists. The present study used bicycle-sharing big data to conduct a more comprehensive and refined real-time population weighted exposure risk assessment of pileless bike sharing riders in Beijing. We quantified the spatial distribution of high exposure areas at different times and found that the exposure risk during the evening peak period was significantly higher than that during the morning peak and early morning periods, particularly in the city center and its environs. By establishing stepwise regression models, we identified the significant impact of various urban points of interest (POIs) on exposure risk, with sports venues, public toilets, educational institutions, scenic spots, and financial entities particularly influential at different time periods. Medical institutions and shopping venues have a significant negative impact on the exposure levels of PM2.5 and NO2 among cyclists in most cases. These findings emphasize the need for targeted pollution control strategies. The aim of this study is to mitigate the impact of air pollution on cyclists and create a healthier cycling environment. The research results can provide new ideas for urban health planning and support scientific decision-making for sustainable urban development.

Iliac artery endofibrosis: diagnostic dilemna and treatment options.

BACKGROUND: External iliac artery endofibrosis (EIAE) is an uncommon pathology, predominantly occurring in cyclists, caused by thickening of the external iliac artery intima. Symptoms are exercise-dependent and typically consist of pain, muscle cramps and loss of strength in the affected limb at (sub)maximal effort. As other musculo-skeletal as well as conditional problems might cause similar complaints diagnosis is not always easy or straightforward. CASE SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION: We reviewed four cases of (semi-)professional cyclists referred to our department in 2021 because of suspicion of EIAE. In all symptoms only occurred at (sub)maximal effort. All had lowering of ABI on the affected side at a dynamic stress test on the bike. Imaging using CTA, MRA or dynamic angiogram was abnormal in all patients, showing signs suspicious for endofibrosis but of different kind and at different locations. Open surgical repair was performed in all cases by a procedure tailored to the type of lesion. Two patients were treated by a saphenous vein patch angioplasty, in one patient a shortening of the vessel and end-to-end anastomosis was performed and in the fourth patient a spiral saphenous vein graft bypass was placed. Postoperative course was uneventful and exercise was resumed after four weeks in all patients. CONCLUSION: Correct diagnosis is essential in the treatment of EIAE. A complete and multidisciplinary pathway should be followed to distinguish vascular from non-vascular causes. Correct lesion localization is crucial and besides CTA or MRA, more sophisticated techniques such as dynamic angiography or intravascular ultrasound might be needed.

The Day-by-Day Periodization Strategies of a Giro d'Italia Podium Finisher.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to describe the day-by-day training and racing characteristics in preparation for the Giro d'Italia of 1 world-class road cyclist who achieved a place on the podium in the final general classification of the Giro d'Italia. METHODS: Day-by-day power meter training and racing data of 1 study subject (road cyclist; age 25 y; relative maximum oxygen consumption 81 mL·min-1·kg-1; relative 20-min record power output 6.6 W·kg-1) covering the 152 days leading up to the podium in the Giro d'Italia final general classification were retrospectively analyzed. Daily load, daily volume, and intensity distribution were considered. RESULTS: During training a pattern alternating "hard days" versus "easy days" was observed, as significant amounts of medium or high intensity, or load, were not performed for more than 2 consecutive days This pattern was achieved combining high volume (>4 h) with a significant amount of medium and high intensity within the same training sessions. During training, when training load and intensity increased, the density of "easy days" augmented. In 1-week stage races and the Giro d'Italia, 3 to 8 consecutive days with significant amounts of medium and high intensity were performed. A high number of training sessions with small amounts of medium- and high-intensity volume was observed: 38 days accumulating 3 to 10 minutes at medium intensity and 29 days spending 1 to 9 minutes at high intensity. CONCLUSION: These data provide novel insights about the day-by-day periodization strategies leading to a top 3 in the Giro d'Italia general classification.

Effects of a 16-Week Training Program with a Pyramidal Intensity Distribution on Recreational Male Cyclists.

Different training intensity distributions (TIDs) have been proposed to improve cycling performance, especially for high-competition athletes. The objectives of this study were to analyze the effect of a 16-week pyramidal training intensity distribution on somatic and power variables in recreational cyclists and to explore the training zone with the greatest impact on performance improvement. The sample consisted of 14 male recreational cyclists aged 41.00 ± 7.29 years of age. A number of somatic variables were measured. During an incremental protocol, power at a 4 mMol·L-1 blood lactate concentration (P4), corresponding power to body mass ratio (P/W P4), and heart rate (HR P4) were also measured. Among the somatic variables, the percentage of fat mass showed the greatest improvement between moments (p < 0.001, d = 0.52). Both P4 (p < 0.001, d = 1.21) and P/W P4 (p < 0.001, d = 1.54) presented a significant increase between moments. The relative improvement in P4 (% P4) showed a significant correlation (Rs = 0.661, p = 0.038) and relationship (R2 = 0.61, p = 0.008) mainly with training zone Z2 (blood lactate levels ≥ 2 and <4 mMol·L-1). It seems that spending more time in Z2 promoted an improvement in both somatic and power variables in recreational cyclists.

Safety assessment of on-road cycling lanes: A comparative study of different layouts using driving simulator.

Over the past few decades, a growing attention has been directed toward cycling due to its positive impacts on social, economic, and health aspects. Various countries are adopting and implementing strategies to promote cycling as a daily mode of transport. The main objective of this study is to improve cyclists' safety by investigating the impact of different layouts of on-road cycle lanes at two-lane two-way roads on drivers' interactions with cyclists using driving simulator. Three layouts of on-road cycle lanes were tested and compared, namely, uncolored, colored, and island separation, along with a control case where no cycle lane was provided. In addition, the impact of road alignments (straight sections, left and right curves) and the presence of an opposing vehicle were investigated. The driving simulator at Qatar University was used to conduct this study. A total of 92 subjects participated in this study. According to the results, on-road cycle lanes can significantly increase the safety of cyclists compared to shared lanes with motorized traffic. Moreover, the results showed that the drivers' intrusion to the opposite lane in the presence of opposing vehicles can be eliminated by providing on-road cycle lanes. That is, drivers' crash risk can also be reduced through the provision of on-road cycle lanes. Comparison of different on-road cycle lane treatments showed that uncolored cycle lanes outperformed the other layouts in terms of lateral clearance between the driver and the cyclist for right and straight alignments. On the other hand, the colored cycle lane showed better results for the left alignment. The findings of this study could be useful for designing on-road bicycle infrastructure to eliminate possible vehicle-cyclist and vehicle-vehicle conflicts and minimize crash risk.

Physiological and nutrition-related challenges as perceived by spinal cord-injured endurance hand cyclists.

This study explored the perceptions of spinal cord-injured (SCI) endurance hand cyclists regarding their physiological and nutrition-related challenges and the perceived impact of these challenges on nutritional intake and exercise capacity. This was an interpretive qualitative descriptive study in which semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 adult South African national-level SCI endurance hand cyclists. Thematic analysis was used to explore perceptions regarding physiological and nutrition-related challenges and the impact thereof on nutritional practices and exercise capacity. Four themes emerged from the interviews: (i) physiological challenges experienced, (ii) nutrition-related challenges experienced, (iii) changes in nutritional practices, and (iv) compromised exercise capacity. The SCI endurance hand cyclists reported a number of physiological and nutrition-related challenges. Bowel and bladder challenges, limited hand function, muscle spasms, thermoregulatory challenges, pressure sores, menstrual periods, and low iron levels/anaemia were perceived to predominantly impact food and fluid intake (restrict intake) and compromise exercise capacity. This information can assist to devise tailored guidelines aimed to optimise fluid intake, overcome bladder challenges and ensure adequate nutritional intake in light of limited hand function.

A comparative analysis of mathematical methods for detecting lactate thresholds using muscle oxygenation data during a graded cycling test.

Objective. Threshold determination for improving training and sports performance is important for researchers and trainers, who currently use different methods for determining lactate, ventilatory or muscle oxygenation (SmO2) thresholds. Our study aimed to compare the identification of the intensity at the first and second thresholds using lactate and SmO2data by different mathematical methods in different muscles during a graded cycling test.Approach. Twenty-six cyclists (15 males and 11 females; 23 ±6 years, 1.71 ± 0.09 m, 64.3 ± 8.8 Kg and 12 ± 3 training hours per week) performed a graded test on the cycle ergometer. Power output and saturation of muscle oxygen in four muscles (vastus lateralis, biceps femoris, gastrocnemius and tibialis anterior) were measured, along with systemic lactate concentration.Main Results. Our results showed that any method was reliable for determining the first muscle oxygenation threshold (MOT1) when comparing the lactate threshold in any muscle. However, the best method for determining the second muscle oxygenation threshold (MOT2) was the Exp-Dmax (p< 0.01; ICC = 0.79-0.91) in all muscles. In particular, the vastus lateralis muscle showed the highest intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC = 0.91, CI95% [0.81, 0.96]). However, results varied per sex across all muscles analyzed.Significance. Although the first muscle oxygenation threshold could not be determined using mathematical methods in all the muscles analyzed, the Exp-Dmax method presented excellent results in detecting the second systemic threshold in the vastus lateralis.

Effects of Cycling on Spine: A Case-Control Study Using a 3D Scanning Method.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have investigated the effects of adopting a specific and prolonged posture on cyclists. This study aimed to evaluate the upright spine in a sample of recreational cyclists and compare it with a sample of non-cyclists, though still athletes, through a 3D scanning method. METHODS: Forty-eight participants were enrolled in this observational study. The sample consisted of 25 cyclists for the cycling group and 23 non-cyclist athletes for the control group. The Spine3D device (Sensor Medica, Guidonia Montecelio, Rome, Italy) was used to evaluate the spine of the participants in both groups. RESULTS: The results showed significantly greater spine inclination in the cycling group compared to the control group (p < 0.01). Furthermore, there was a significant decrease in lumbar lordosis in the cycling group compared to the control group (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: This case-control study raises the possibility that the onset of lower back pain in cyclists may be due to a reduction in lumbar lordosis. Furthermore, this study demonstrated that the Spine3D device can be used in sports to monitor the spine of athletes to prevent and reduce musculoskeletal deficits.

Effects of Photobiomodulation Therapy on Performance in Successive Time-to-Exhaustion Cycling Tests: A Randomized Double-Blinded Placebo-Controlled Trial.

The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) on performance, oxygen uptake (VO2) kinetics, and lower limb muscle oxygenation during three successive time-to-exhaustions (TTEs) in cyclists. This was a double-blind, randomized, crossover, placebo-controlled trial study. Sixteen cyclists (~23 years) with a cycling training volume of ~460 km/week volunteered for this study. In the first session, cyclists performed a maximal incremental test to determine maximal oxygen uptake and maximal power output (POMAX). In the following sessions, cyclists performed three consecutive TTEs at POMAX. Before each test, PBMT (135 J/thigh) or a placebo (PLA) was applied to both thighs. VO2 amplitude, O2 deficit, time delay, oxyhemoglobin (O2Hb), deoxyhemoglobin (HHb), and total hemoglobin (tHb) were measured during tests on the right vastus lateralis. The PBMT applied before three successive TTE increased performance of the first and second TTE (~10-12%) tests, speed of VO2 and HHb kinetics during the first test, and increased peripheral muscle oxygenation (increase in HHb and tHb) in the first and second exhaustion tests. However, the PBMT effects were attenuated in the third TTE, as performance and all the other outcomes were similar to the ones from the PLA intervention. In summary, PBMT application increased the first and second successive TTEs, speed of VO2, and muscle oxygenation.

Pedestrian- and bicyclist-involved crashes: Associations with spatial factors, pedestrian infrastructure, and equity impacts.

INTRODUCTION: We analyze and compare the factors that influence the fatality of pedestrian and bicyclist involved crashes in New Jersey using available police-reported crash data between 2016 and 2020. Under three percent of crashes involve non-motorists statewide, but these account for about one third of all traffic fatalities in the state. METHODS: Our analysis is broken down into five parts: we (1) analyze the relationship between minority and low-income communities and non-motorist involved crashes; (2) identify spatial differences between non-motorist involved crashes and non-motorist involved fatal crashes; (3) compare the factors affecting fatal pedestrian crashes in New Jersey and in four counties in southern New Jersey for which we have data on pedestrian infrastructure; (4) compare the factors affecting fatal pedestrian crashes and fatal cyclist crashes in New Jersey; and, (5) discuss priority areas for improving safety. RESULTS: Crashes occur disproportionately more often in low-income communities. Moreover, we find that crashes are less likely to be geocoded if they take place in low-income and minority areas, a concerning finding considering that geocoded crashes are of paramount importance in identifying specific corridors for improvement. Light conditions, non-motorist age, posted speed, and vehicle type are significant factors influencing the fatality of non-motorist involved crashes. The proximity to a crosswalk or sidewalk is associated with decreased risk of a fatal crash for pedestrians. Cyclist crashes in low-income neighborhoods were more likely to be fatal - a finding that we attribute to lower access to bicycle facilities in low-income areas. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude with countermeasures, including a call for better data collection.

The Weekly Periodization of Top 5 Tour de France General Classification Finishers: A Multiple Case Study.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to describe individual training characteristics, racing strategies, and periodization in preparation for the Tour de France in 2 world-class road cyclists finishing in the top 5 of the general classification. METHODS: Week-by-week power meter training and racing data of 2 (A and B) road cyclists (age: 29 and 23 y; maximum oxygen consumption: 83 and 81 mL·min-1·kg-1; and relative 20-min record power output: 6.9 and 6.5 W·kg-1) in the preparation phase (December-July/August) leading up to the Tour de France were retrospectively analyzed. Weekly volume and intensity distribution in power zones were considered. RESULTS: Cyclists A and B completed 46 and 19 races, 22.5 (6.3) and 18.2 (5.1) h·wk-1, with a pyramidal intensity distribution of 81.0%-13.3%-5.7%, and 88.8%-7.9%-3.3% in zone 1-zone 2-zone 3. Cyclist B spent 14 days at altitude. Increased high-intensity volume and polarization index occurred during race weeks. During periods without racing, training intensity progressively increased. Strength training was performed during November and December but not during the following months. During tapering, total exercise volume and time at high intensity decreased. CONCLUSION: These data provide novel insights into the periodization of world-class road cyclists in advance of a top 5 placing in the Tour de France general classification.

Evaluating alternate discrete outcome frameworks for modeling riders' red light running behavior.

This paper aims to empirically evaluate the ordered and unordered discrete outcome frameworks to approach riders' red-light running (RLR) decisions and compare the differences in influencing factors between riders' risk-taking and opportunistic RLR behaviors. A total of 2057 cyclist samples approaching the intersections during red signals were observed by video in Beijing, China. To better capture the unobserved heterogeneity, apart from the traditional models, three advanced models including the random thresholds random parameters hierarchical ordered logit (RTRPHOL) model, the random parameters logit model with heterogeneity in means and variances (RPLHMV) model, and the correlated random parameters logit model with heterogeneity in means (CRPLHM), are developed. Results show that: 1) the unordered framework statistically outperformed its ordered counterparts, and the RPLHMV and CRPLHM models are statistically better than others. 2) The female and e-bicycle indicators produce a heterogeneity-in-means effect, and the low-volume and left-side indicators produce a heterogeneity-in-variances effect. 3) e-bike riders and riders from the right side are more inclined to have risk-taking behavior than opportunistic behavior, and both RLR behaviors of cyclists are most susceptible to the number of violating individual indicator. Findings illustrate that multilayer unobserved heterogeneity should be adequately considered in developing precise micro-simulation and practical guidance in traffic safety.

The Effect of Skeletal Muscle Oxygenation on Hemodynamics, Cerebral Oxygenation and Activation, and Exercise Performance during Incremental Exercise to Exhaustion in Male Cyclists.

This study aimed to elucidate whether muscle blood flow restriction during maximal exercise is associated with alterations in hemodynamics, cerebral oxygenation, cerebral activation, and deterioration of exercise performance in male participants. Thirteen healthy males, cyclists (age 33 ± 2 yrs., body mass: 78.6 ± 2.5 kg, and body mass index: 25.57 ± 0.91 kg·m-1), performed a maximal incremental exercise test on a bicycle ergometer in two experimental conditions: (a) with muscle blood flow restriction through the application of thigh cuffs inflated at 120 mmHg (with cuffs, WC) and (b) without restriction (no cuffs, NC). Exercise performance significantly deteriorated with muscle blood flow restriction, as evidenced by the reductions in V˙O2max (-17 ± 2%, p < 0.001), peak power output (-28 ± 2%, p < 0.001), and time to exhaustion (-28 ± 2%, p < 0.001). Muscle oxygenated hemoglobin (Δ[O2Hb]) during exercise declined more in the NC condition (p < 0.01); however, at exhaustion, the magnitude of muscle oxygenation and muscle deoxygenation were similar between conditions (p > 0.05). At maximal effort, lower cerebral deoxygenated hemoglobin (Δ[HHb]) and cerebral total hemoglobin (Δ[THb]) were observed in WC (p < 0.001), accompanied by a lower cardiac output, heart rate, and stroke volume vs. the NC condition (p < 0.01), whereas systolic blood pressure, rating of perceived exertion, and cerebral activation (as assessed by electroencephalography (EEG) activity) were similar (p > 0.05) between conditions at task failure, despite marked differences in exercise duration, maximal aerobic power output, and V˙O2max. In conclusion, in trained cyclists, muscle blood flow restriction during an incremental cycling exercise test significantly limited exercise performance. Exercise intolerance with muscle blood flow restriction was mainly associated with attenuated cardiac responses, despite cerebral activation reaching similar maximal levels as without muscle blood flow restriction.

Should I Rest or Should I Go Now? A Randomized Cross-Over Trial Comparing Fixed and Self-Selected Rest Durations in High-Intensity Interval Training Cycling Sessions.

BACKGROUND: In high-intensity interval training (HIIT), the rest durations between intervals are commonly prescribed using a fixed approach (e.g., 30 s between intervals). An alternative is the self-selected (SS) approach, in which trainees select their resting durations. Studies comparing the two approaches report mixed results. However, in these studies, trainees in the SS condition rested for as little or as long as they wished, leading to dissimilar total rest durations between conditions. Here, for the first time, we compare the two approaches while controlling for total rest duration. METHODS: Twenty-four amateur adult male cyclists completed a familiarization session, followed by two counterbalanced cycling HIIT sessions. Each session was composed of nine, 30-s intervals, in which the goal was to accumulate as many watts as possible on an SRM ergometer. In the fixed condition, cyclists rested for 90 s between intervals. In the SS condition, cyclists had 720 s (i.e., 8 × 90 s) of rest to allocate in any way they wished. We measured and compared watts, heart rate, electromyography of the knee flexors and extensors, rating of perceived effort and fatigue, perception of autonomy and enjoyment. Additionally, a subsample of ten cyclists completed a retest of the SS condition. RESULTS: With the exception of perception of autonomy, which was higher in the SS condition, outcomes were highly similar in both conditions. For example, the average aggregated differences were: 0.57 (95% CI - 8.94, 10.09) for watts; - 0.85 (95% CI - 2.89, 1.18) for heart rate; and 0.01 (95% CI - 0.29, 0.30) for rating of perceived effort (on a 0-10 scale). Additionally, the retest of the SS condition resulted in a similar rest allocation pattern across the intervals and in similar outcomes. CONCLUSION: Given the similarities in performance, physiological and psychological outcomes between the fixed and SS conditions, both can be equally utilized based on coaches' and cyclists' preferences and training goals.

Saddle Pressures Factors in Road and Off-Road Cyclists of Both Genders: A Narrative Review.

The contact point of the pelvis with the saddle of the bicycle could generate abnormal pressure, which could lead to injuries to the perineum in cyclists. The aim of this review was to summarize in a narrative way the current literature on the saddle pressures and to present the factors that influence saddle pressures in order to prevent injury risk in road and off-road cyclists of both genders. We searched the PubMed database to identify English-language sources, using the following terms: "saddle pressures", "pressure mapping", "saddle design" AND "cycling". We also searched the bibliographies of the retrieved articles. Saddle pressures are influenced by factors such as sitting time on the bike, pedaling intensity, pedaling frequency, trunk and hand position, handlebars position, saddle design, saddle height, padded shorts, and gender. The jolts of the perineum on the saddle, especially on mountain bikes, generate intermittent pressures, which represent a risk factor for various pathologies of the urogenital system. This review highlights the importance of considering these factors that influence saddle pressures in order to prevent urogenital system injuries in cyclists.