Fluctuation of fine motor skills throughout the menstrual cycle in women.

The effect of the menstrual cycle on fine motor skills is unclear. This study determined whether the menstrual cycle affected fine motor skills and related neural activities. Nineteen women with regular menstrual cycles were tested for fine motor skills using two types of tasks: grooved pegboard task (GPT), which evaluates motor control with high freedom of movements, and force modulation task (FMT), which evaluates more complex and fine motor control with low freedom of movements. We also assessed primary motor cortex intracortical circuits and sensorimotor integration using paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation to reveal why the menstrual cycle affects fine motor skills. The present study indicated that fine motor skills assessed by FMT varied throughout the menstrual cycle while those measured by GPT did not. These results suggest that fine motor skills requiring more complex and fine control may be affected by the menstrual cycle. Additionally, changes in fine motor skills throughout the menstrual cycle may be associated with the severity of menstruation-related symptoms.

Symptoms of premenstrual dysphoric disorder and cycle phase are associated with enhanced facial emotion detection: An online cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Premenstrual dysphoric disorder is a depressive disorder affecting 5%-8% of people with menstrual cycles. Despite evidence that facial emotion detection is altered in depressive disorders, with enhanced detection of negative emotions (negativity bias), minimal research exists on premenstrual dysphoric disorder. OBJECTIVES: The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of premenstrual dysphoric disorder symptoms and the premenstrual phase on accuracy and intensity at detection of facial emotions. DESIGN: Cross-sectional quasi-experimental design. METHOD: The Facial Emotion Detection Task was administered to 72 individuals assigned female at birth with no premenstrual dysphoric disorder (n = 30), and provisional PMDD (n = 42), based on a retrospective Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition-based measure of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Facial emotion detection was examined both irrespective of menstrual cycle phase, and as a function of premenstrual phase (yes, no). The task used neutral-to-emotional facial expression morphs (15 images/morph). Participants indicated the emotion detected for each image within the progressive intensity morph. For all six basic emotions (sad, angry, fearful, happy, disgust, and surprise), two scores were calculated: accuracy of responses and the intensity within the morph at which the correct emotion was first detected (image number). RESULTS: Individuals reporting moderate/severe symptoms of premenstrual dysphoric disorder had more accurate and earlier detection of disgust, regardless of cycle phase. In addition, those with provisional premenstrual dysphoric disorder detected sad emotions earlier. A premenstrual dysphoric disorder group × cycle phase interaction also emerged: individuals reporting premenstrual dysphoric disorder symptoms were more accurate at detecting facial emotions during the premenstrual phase compared to the rest of the cycle, with a large effect size for sad emotions. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest enhanced facial emotion processing in individuals reporting symptoms of premenstrual dysphoric disorder, particularly for sadness and disgust. However, replication is required with larger samples and prospective designs. This premenstrual dysphoric disorder premenstrual emotion detection advantage suggests an adaptive cognitive mechanism in premenstrual syndrome/premenstrual dysphoric disorder, and challenges stigma surrounding premenstrual experiences.

Women with Severe Premenstrual Syndrome or Probable Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder are Better at Identifying Emotional Expressions on People's Faces, Especially During the Premenstrual PhasePremenstrual dysphoric disorder is a depressive disorder affecting women where they experience emotional and physical symptoms during the premenstrual phase (i.e. the week before one's period). It is a severe form of premenstrual syndrome. Research indicates that depression can affect facial emotion recognition. Accurately recognizing other people's emotions is an important skill that helps us develop social connections and keep ourselves and others safe. Quick recognition of facial emotions allows us to understand and support others, and quickly identify dangerous situations by recognizing other people's emotional responses. The goal of this study was to examine how premenstrual dysphoric disorder symptoms and the premenstrual phase may affect the ability of women to recognize and identify emotions on other people's faces. A total of 72 women (42 with premenstrual dysphoric disorder, 30 without premenstrual dysphoric disorder) completed the Facial Emotion Detection Task. This task measured how accurate and early the women were able to detect happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust in faces. Women with moderate/severe symptoms of premenstrual dysphoric disorder had more accurate and earlier detection of disgust, regardless of where they were in their menstrual cycle. Women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder detected sad emotions earlier. Furthermore, women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder were more accurate at detecting facial emotions when they were tested in the premenstrual phase, and were especially more accurate in detecting sad emotions. The findings suggest that women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder are better at detecting facial emotions and show a premenstrual dysphoric disorder premenstrual emotion detection advantage. This tendency for women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder to better detect emotions in others, particularly when they are in the premenstrual cycle phase, would have benefits. As one of the first reports of a potentially beneficial effect of premenstrual syndrome for women, the findings may help decrease stigma associated with premenstrual dysphoric disorder and premenstrual syndrome. Further research is needed to replicate and extend these findings.

Menstrual cycle patterns and their relationship with measures of well-being and perceived performance metrics in competitive and recreational resistance-trained athletes.

BACKGROUND: There is mixed evidence on how the menstrual cycle (MC) affects sports performance, with many studies showing variations in performance during different phases of the MC, while other evidence shows that the MC's effects on performance may be trivial. Therefore, this exploratory longitudinal monitoring study was designed to investigate MC characteristics and symptoms in a resistance-trained (RT) population to look for associations between measures of well-being and perceived performance metrics across the MC. METHODS: RT females reported their workout habits, perceived performance metrics, and measures of well-being while tracking their MC with detailed methods via daily check-ins in an app. RESULTS: Most MC characteristics and symptoms in the present RT population aligned with previous research on the general population. However, the frequency of irregular cycles was higher than in previous research on the general population. The amount of individual variation and within-subject cycle-to-cycle variation in MC characteristics and MC symptoms was also high. All measures of well-being were significantly associated with specific days of the MC, demonstrating a change in well-being based on the timing of the MC. Several perceived performance metrics were significantly associated with changes across the MC, while others were not. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, with the current evidence as it stands, a highly individualized approach should be taken for any training or performance considerations surrounding the MC due to the high levels of individual variation.

PACAP-38 and sex hormones in women with migraine: exploratory analysis of a cross-sectional, matched cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Endogeneous and exogeneous sex hormones can impact the frequency and severity of migraine attacks, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. In this study, we investigate the relationship between female sex hormones and Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide-38 (PACAP-38) concentrations in plasma of women with migraine and healthy controls, aiming to elucidate potential hormonal influences on PACAP dynamics and their relevance to migraine pathophysiology. METHODS: This analysis is part of a cross-sectional, matched-cohort study. We recruited two groups of women with episodic migraine: one with a regular menstrual cycle (M-RMC) and another undergoing combined oral contraceptive treatment (M-COC). Additionally, we included corresponding age-matched control groups without migraine for both categories (C-RMC and C-COC). For participants with a RMC, the study visits were scheduled during the perimenstrual period (menstrual cycle day 2 ± 2) and periovulatory period (day 13 ± 2). Participants using COC were examined at day 4 ± 2 of the hormone-free interval and between day 7-14 of the hormone intake phase. During these visits, PACAP-38 concentrations in plasma were measured using a commercial Enzyme-linked-immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. RESULTS: The study included 120 women, with 30 participants in each group. Women with migraine and a RMC had significantly higher PACAP-38 plasma concentrations compared to healthy controls at both study visits [day 2 ± 2: M-RMC: 2547.41 pg/ml (IQR 814.27 - 4473.48) vs. C-RMC: 1129.49 pg/ml (IQR 257.34 - 2684.88), p = 0.025; day 13 ± 2: M-RMC: 3098.89 pg/ml (IQR 1186.29 - 4379.47) vs. C-RMC: 1626.89 (IQR 383.83 - 3038.36), p = 0.028]. In contrast, PACAP-38 levels were comparable between migraine and control groups receiving COC. Women with migraine and a RMC exhibited higher PACAP-38 concentrations during menstruation compared to those using COC during the hormone-free interval. CONCLUSION: Systemic PACAP-38 concentrations in women vary based on the presence of migraine diagnosis and their hormonal status.

Menstrual Cycle Hormone Relaxin and ACL Injuries in Female Athletes: A Systematic Review.

Background: Female athletes are at increased risk for anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries. The influence of hormonal variation on female ACL injury risk remains ill-defined. Recent data suggests that the collagen-degrading menstrual hormone relaxin may cyclically impact female ACL tissue quality. This review aims to identify any correlation between menstrual relaxin peaks and rates of female ACL injury. Methods: A systematic review was performed, utilizing the MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CINAHL databases. Included studies had to directly address relaxin/female ACL interactions. The primary outcome variable was relaxin proteolysis of the ACL, at cellular, tissue, joint, and whole-organism levels. The secondary outcome variable was any discussed method of moderating relaxin levels, and the clinical results if available. Results: AllThe numerous relaxin receptors on female ACLs upregulate local collagenolysis and suppress local collagen production. Peak serum relaxin concentrations (SRC) occur during menstrual cycle days 21-24; a time phase associated with greater risk of ACL injury. Oral contraceptives (OCPs) reduce SRC, with a potential ACLprotective effect. Conclusion: A reasonable correlative and plausible causative relationship exists between peak relaxin levels and increased risk of ACL injury in females, and further investigation is warranted. Level of Evidence: III.

Menstrual cycle disorders as an early symptom of energy deficiency among female physique athletes assessed using the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q).

Physique competitions are weight-sensitive sports in which stage presentation, aesthetic appearance and posing ability of the athletes are judged rather than physical performance. The aim of this study was to assess low energy availability among female physique athletes by using the LEAF-Q. The study involved 104 females who were physique athletes. Monthly cycle disorders were reported in 58.65% of the women, that is periods stopped for three consecutive months or longer (amenorrhea). This situation occurred before the research was conducted in 43.27% of athletes and during the research in 15.38%. The physique athletes claimed that menstruation changes occurred when there was an increased exercise intensity, frequency or duration. Absence from training due to injury was reported by 27.88% of the women. The LEAF-Q identified 46.15% of the physique athletes as at risk (score ≥ 8) of low energy availability and the physiological consequences related to RED-S. Women who had menstrual cycle disorders were younger and did more training per week. Among women with menstrual disorders, cramps or stomach ache which cannot be related to menstruation occurred more frequently (p = 0.004). Absence from training or lack of participation in competition due to injuries occurred more frequently in the score ≥ 8 group (p = 0.024) thank the ≤ score 8 group. In the score ≥ 8 group menstruation changes, that is less bleeding or cessation of menstruation (p = 0.035), occurred more frequently when there was an increase in exercise intensity, frequency or duration (p = 0.002).

Impact of symptoms, experiences, and perceptions of the menstrual cycle on recreational physical activity of cyclically menstruating individuals: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: The menstrual cycle often presents barriers to participation in daily life activities, including physical activity (PA), which is a cornerstone of health and well-being. The purpose of this systematic review was to explore and summarize the impact of symptoms, experiences, and perceptions of the menstrual cycle on recreational PA (RPA), including sports, exercise and active recreation, in the general population. METHODS: Six databases were searched for studies that investigated the impact of the menstrual cycle on PA among individuals who were cyclically menstruating, healthy, and not involved in professional sports training. RESULTS: The search yielded 3025 studies that were screened for relevance and eligibility, resulting in 25 eligible studies, which were found to be of moderate-to-high quality following a quality and risk-of-bias assessment. Thematic synthesis of qualitative and quantitative data from the selected studies, constituting 16,557 adults and 3715 adolescents, identified the impact of menstrual symptoms on the physical and psychological capability to participate in RPA, social opportunity barriers to RPA (e.g., social pressure due to the sociocultural taboo against menstruation), as well reflective (knowledge) and automatic (habit) motivation on RPA behaviours. CONCLUSION: The variability in menstrual symptoms and corresponding experiences suggested the need for an individualized approach to RPA promotion. Furthermore, this review highlighted the need to address the sociocultural taboo against menstruation, as well as improve the provision of knowledge and resources related to the menstrual cycle and RPA, in order to promote and facilitate RPA for cyclically menstruating individuals throughout the menstrual cycle.

Correlation of sex hormone levels with orthodontic tooth movement in the maxilla: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Sex hormones secreted during the menstrual cycle and the application of orthodontic forces to teeth can affect the metabolism of periodontal ligaments. This study aimed to determine whether there are any differences in orthodontic tooth displacement during the menstrual cycle and when using hormonal contraceptives and whether the amount of female sex hormones influences the efficiency of tooth displacement. METHODS: A total of 120 women aged between 20 and 30 years with Angle Class II requiring transpalatal arch (TPA) to derotate teeth 16 and 26 were included in this study. The participants were divided into two groups: group A, which included women with regular menstruation, and control group B, which included women taking monophasic combined oral contraceptives. Group A was divided into subgroups according to the moment of TPA activation: menstruation (A1), ovulation phase (A2), and luteal phase (A3) (examination I). On intraoral scans, measurement points were marked on the proximal mesial cusps of teeth 16 and 26, and the intermolar distance (M1) was determined. The change in the position of the measurement points 6 weeks after activation (examination II) made it possible to determine the derotating extent of teeth 16 (O16) and 26 (O26) and the widening of the intermolar distance (M2-M1). In examinations I and II, tooth mobility in the alveoli was assessed using Periotest based on the periotest values (PTV) PTV1 and PTV2, respectively. RESULTS: A significant difference in all parameters was observed among groups A1, A2, and A3 (P < 0.001). Group A3 showed the highest values of parameters O16, O26, and M2-M1, and group A2 showed the lowest values, which did not differ from the control group (P = 0.64). PTV2 and PTV1 were the highest in group A3 and the lowest in groups A1 and B. Intergroup differences were statistically significant (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: With the quantification of changes in tooth mobility in the alveoli during the menstrual cycle in women undergoing orthodontic treatment, it was possible to determine that female sex hormones affect the effectiveness of orthodontic treatment, and the optimal moment for TPA activation is the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle.

Effect of menstrual cycle and menopause on human gastric electrophysiology.

Chronic gastroduodenal symptoms disproportionately affect females of childbearing age; however, the effect of menstrual cycling on gastric electrophysiology is poorly defined. To establish the effect of the menstrual cycle on gastric electrophysiology, healthy subjects underwent noninvasive Body Surface Gastric Mapping (BSGM; 8x8 array) with the validated symptom logging App (Gastric Alimetry, New Zealand). Participants included were premenopausal females in follicular (n = 26) and luteal phases (n = 18) and postmenopausal females (n = 30) and males (n = 51) were controls. Principal gastric frequency (PGF), body mass index (BMI) adjusted amplitude, Gastric Alimetry Rhythm Index (GA-RI), Fed:Fasted Amplitude Ratio (ff-AR), meal response curves, and symptom burden were analyzed. Menstrual cycle-related electrophysiological changes were then transferred to an established anatomically accurate computational gastric fluid dynamics model (meal viscosity 0.1 Pas) to predict the impact on gastric mixing and emptying. PGF was significantly higher in the luteal versus follicular phase [mean 3.21 cpm, SD (0.17) vs. 2.94 cpm, SD (0.17), P < 0.001] and versus males [3.01 cpm, SD (0.2), P < 0.001]. In the computational model, this translated to 8.1% higher gastric mixing strength and 5.3% faster gastric emptying for luteal versus follicular phases. Postmenopausal females also exhibited higher PGF than females in the follicular phase [3.10 cpm, SD (0.24) vs. 2.94 cpm, SD (0.17), P = 0.01], and higher BMI-adjusted amplitude [40.7 µV (33.02-52.58) vs. 29.6 µV (26.15-39.65), P < 0.001], GA-RI [0.60 (0.48-0.73) vs. 0.43 (0.30-0.60), P = 0.005], and ff-AR [2.51 (1.79-3.47) vs. 1.48 (1.21-2.17), P = 0.001] than males. There were no differences in symptoms. These results define variations in gastric electrophysiology with regard to human menstrual cycling and menopause.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study evaluates gastric electrophysiology in relation to the menstrual cycle using a novel noninvasive high-resolution methodology, revealing substantial variations in gastric activity with menstrual cycling and menopause. Gastric slow-wave frequency is significantly higher in the luteal versus follicular menstrual phase. Computational modeling predicts that this difference translates to higher rates of gastric mixing and liquid emptying in the luteal phase, which is consistent with previous experimental data evaluating menstrual cycling effects on gastric emptying.

Myths and Methodologies: Standardisation in human physiology research-should we control the controllables?

The premise of research in human physiology is to explore a multifaceted system whilst identifying one or a few outcomes of interest. Therefore, the control of potentially confounding variables requires careful thought regarding the extent of control and complexity of standardisation. One common factor to control prior to testing is diet, as food and fluid provision may deviate from participants' habitual diets, yet a self-report and replication method can be flawed by under-reporting. Researchers may also need to consider standardisation of physical activity, whether it be through familiarisation trials, wash-out periods, or guidance on levels of physical activity to be achieved before trials. In terms of pharmacological agents, the ethical implications of standardisation require researchers to carefully consider how medications, caffeine consumption and oral contraceptive prescriptions may affect the study. For research in females, it should be considered whether standardisation between- or within-participants in regards to menstrual cycle phase is most relevant. The timing of measurements relative to various other daily events is relevant to all physiological research and so it can be important to standardise when measurements are made. This review summarises the areas of standardisation which we hope will be considered useful to anyone involved in human physiology research, including when and how one can apply standardisation to various contexts.

Breast Glandular and Ductal Volume Changes during the Menstrual Cycle: A Study in 48 Breasts Using Ultralow-Frequency Transmitted Ultrasound Tomography/Volography.

The aim of this study was to show for the first time that low-frequency 3D-transmitted ultrasound tomography (3D UT, volography) can differentiate breast tissue types using tissue properties, accurately measure glandular and ductal volumes in vivo, and measure variation over time. Data were collected for 400 QT breast scans on 24 women (ages 18-71), including four (4) postmenopausal subjects, 6-10 times over 2+ months of observation. The date of onset of menopause was noted, and the cases were further subdivided into three (3) classes: pre-, post-, and peri-menopausal. The ducts and glands were segmented using breast speed of sound, attenuation, and reflectivity images and followed over several menstrual cycles. The coefficient of variation (CoV) for glandular tissue in premenopausal women was significantly larger than for postmenopausal women, whereas this is not true for the ductal CoV. The glandular standard deviation (SD) is significantly larger in premenopausal women vs. postmenopausal women, whereas this is not true for ductal tissue. We conclude that ducts do not appreciably change over the menstrual cycle in either pre- or post-menopausal subjects, whereas glands change significantly over the cycle in pre-menopausal women, and 3D UT can differentiate ducts from glands in vivo.

Longitudinal associations between women's cycle characteristics and sexual motivation using Flo cycle tracking data.

In the current research, we used data from a sample of 16,327 menstrual cycle tracking app users to examine the association between menstrual cycle characteristics and sexual motivation tracked over 10 months of app use. Guided by past work that finds links between menstrual cycle characteristics related to conception risk and sexual motivation, we found that (a) between-women, shorter (r = - 0.04, p = 0.007), more regular cycles predicted small increases in sexual motivation (r = - 0.04, p = 0.001); (b) within-women, shorter cycles predicted greater sexual motivation that month (r = - 0.04, p < 0.001) and (c) the next month (ßs: - 0.10 to - 0.06, ps < 0.001), but (d) changes in sexual motivation did not reliably precede changes in cycle length (ßs: - 0.01 to 0.02, ps > 0.15). Within-woman analyses also revealed that (e) shorter cycles were followed by more frequent reports of fatigue (ß = - 0.06, p < 0.001), insomnia (ß = - 0.03, p < 0.001), and food cravings (ß = - 0.04, p < 0.001). Together, results suggest that menstrual cycles characteristics and sexual motivation may covary together in ways that reflect changing investments in reproduction. Small effect sizes and lack of experimental control warrant cautious interpretations of results.

How autistic women are aware of their body and take care of their health? Focus on menstruation cycles and gynecological care.

Objective: The combination of femininity and inequality is an increasingly studied in the field of social medicine, even more if the girls or women in question experience conditions of disability or neurodivergence. The onset of menstruation, menarche, constitutes a significant and transformative event in women's lives comprising a true and proper watershed in mental and reproductive health and sexual welfare. The onset of menstruation has a profound effect not just for girls but, in the case of disabled girls, for the whole family. In this scoping review, we have researched the literature in studies which consider the issue of menstruation and autism. The works in scientific literature have been selected which, in the last 5 years, investigated the issue of menstrua-tion for autistic girls and/or women. Results: Selected studies, although few in number, have all equally evidenced the total lack of in-depth understanding of this theme, notwithstanding the fact that females, girls and women with autism would benefit from specialized services if these existed. Families, girls and women involved, moreover, although not experiencing menstruation per se in a negative light, note a deterioration in their condition particularly in respect of sensorial perception and the intensification of anxious depressive instances. This work highlights the need to deepen the aspects concerning the period in autistic girls/women, up to now the question appears to have been little studied, investigated in an uneven way. We propose a social medical program to improve sexual-affective knowledge and body awareness in autistic people.

Menarche and Time to Cycle Regularity Among Individuals Born Between 1950 and 2005 in the US.

Importance: Early menarche is associated with adverse health outcomes. Trends toward earlier menarche have been observed in the US, but data remain limited on differences by sociodemographic factors and body mass index (BMI). Time from menarche to cycle regularity is another understudied early-life characteristic with health implications. Objectives: To evaluate the temporal trends and disparities in menarche and time to regularity and explore early-life BMI as a mediator. Design, Setting, and Participants: This ongoing cohort study enrolled participants from an ongoing mobile application-based US cohort from November 14, 2019, to March 20, 2023. Exposures: Birth year (categorized as 1950-1969, 1970-1979, 1980-1989, 1990-1999, and 2000-2005). Main Outcomes and Measures: Main outcomes were age at menarche and time to regularity, which were self-recalled at enrollment. In addition, early (aged <11 years), very early (aged <9 years), and late (aged ≥16 years) age at menarche was assessed. Results: Among the 71 341 female individuals who were analyzed (mean [SD] age at menarche, 12.2 [1.6] years; 2228 [3.1%] Asian, 3665 [5.1%] non-Hispanic Black, 4918 [6.9%] Hispanic, 49 518 [69.4%] non-Hispanic White, and 8461 [11.9%] other or multiple races or ethnicities), 5223 were born in 1950 to 1969, 12 226 in 1970 to 1979, 22 086 in 1980 to 1989, 23 894 in 1990 to 1999, and 7912 in 2000 to 2005. The mean (SD) age at menarche decreased from 12.5 (1.6) years in 1950 to 1969 to 11.9 (1.5) years in 2000 to 2005. The number of individuals experiencing early menarche increased from 449 (8.6%) to 1223 (15.5%), the number of individuals experiencing very early menarche increased from 31 (0.6%) to 110 (1.4%), and the number of individuals experiencing late menarche decreased from 286 (5.5%) to 137 (1.7%). For 61 932 participants with reported time to regularity, the number reaching regularity within 2 years decreased from 3463 (76.3%) to 4075 (56.0%), and the number not yet in regular cycles increased from 153 (3.4%) to 1375 (18.9%). The magnitude of the trend toward earlier menarche was greater among participants who self-identified as Asian, non-Hispanic Black, or other or multiple races (vs non-Hispanic White) (P = .003 for interaction) and among participants self-rated with low (vs high) socioeconomic status (P < .001 for interaction). Within a subset of 9865 participants with data on BMI at menarche, exploratory mediation analysis estimated that 46% (95% CI, 35%-61%) of the temporal trend in age at menarche was explained by BMI. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study of 71 341 individuals in the US, as birth year increased, mean age at menarche decreased and time to regularity increased. The trends were stronger among racial and ethnic minority groups and individuals of low self-rated socioeconomic status. These trends may contribute to the increase in adverse health outcomes and disparities in the US.

Menstrual pattern in polycystic ovary syndrome and hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis immaturity in adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze differences in the menstrual pattern, age at menarche, and body mass index (BMI) in adolescents with Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Ovarian (HPO) axis immaturity and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) through a systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS: The PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, Virtual Health Library, Scopus databases were searched using combinations of descriptors. Study quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. For data analysis, the results were grouped into PCOS group and NPCOS group (HPO axis immaturity). We performed a meta-analysis of raw data and the inverse variance method, employing the standardized mean difference, of the age at menarche and BMI of adolescents. RESULTS: Participants totaled 1,718 from nine selected studies. The meta-analysis showed that the PCOS group had a higher BMI than the NPCOS group (SMD 0.334; CI95% 0.073 - 0.595; p = .012). The degree of heterogeneity of the studies was approximately 40%. No significant difference in age at menarche (SMD - 0.027; CI95% -0.227 - 0.172; p = 0.790) and menstrual patterns was found, but amenorrhea was described only in adolescents with PCOS. CONCLUSIONS: The main characteristic in menstrual pattern that differentiated PCOS patients from girls with HPO axis immaturity was amenorrhea. Also, the BMI of PCOS patients was nearly one third higher than that of adolescents with HPO axis immaturity.

Background Breast Parenchymal Signal During Menstrual Cycle on Diffusion-Weighted MRI: A Prospective Study in Healthy Premenopausal Women.

OBJECTIVE: To prospectively investigate the influence of the menstrual cycle on the background parenchymal signal (BPS) and apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) of the breast on diffusion-weighted MRI (DW-MRI) in healthy premenopausal women. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Seven healthy premenopausal women (median age, 37 years; range, 33-49 years) with regular menstrual cycles participated in this study. DW-MRI was performed during each of the four phases of the menstrual cycle (four examinations in total). Three radiologists independently assessed the BPS visual grade on images with b-values of 800 sec/mm² (b800), 1200 sec/mm² (b1200), and a synthetic 1500 sec/mm² (sb1500). Additionally, one radiologist conducted a quantitative analysis to measure the BPS volume (%) and ADC values of the BPS (ADCBPS) and fibroglandular tissue (ADCFGT). Changes in the visual grade, BPS volume (%), ADCBPS, and ADCFGT during the menstrual cycle were descriptively analyzed. RESULTS: The visual grade of BPS in seven women varied from mild to marked on b800 and from minimal to moderate on b1200 and sb1500. As the b-value increased, the visual grade of BPS decreased. On b800 and sb1500, two of the seven volunteers showed the highest visual grade in the early follicular phase (EFP). On b1200, three of the seven volunteers showed the highest visual grades in EFP. The BPS volume (%) on b800 and b1200 showed the highest value in three of the six volunteers with dense breasts in EFP. Three of the seven volunteers showed the lowest ADCBPS in the EFP. Four of the seven volunteers showed the highest ADCBPS in the early luteal phase (ELP) and the lowest ADCFGT in the late follicular phase (LFP). CONCLUSION: Most volunteers did not exhibit specific BPS patterns during their menstrual cycles. However, the highest BPS and lowest ADCBPS were more frequently observed in EFP than in the other menstrual cycle phases, whereas the highest ADCBPS was more common in ELP. The lowest ADCFGT was more frequent in LFP.

Factors influencing menstrual regularity among female workers: a cross-sectional analysis study.

BACKGROUND: Regularity of menstrual cycles is an important indicator of women's health and fertility, and female workers are exposed to several factors, such as sleep disorders, stress, and shift work, that affect their menstrual regularity. This makes it necessary to comprehensively identify the determinants of menstrual regularity. Therefore, this study identified the factors affecting menstrual regularity among female workers from physiological, psychological, and situational dimensions based on the theory of unpleasant symptoms. METHODS: This was a secondary analysis of the 2010-2012 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and utilized the data of 2418 female workers. Based on the theory of unpleasant symptoms, physiological factors included age, age at menarche, childbirth experience, body mass index, and sleep duration. Psychological factors included stress level, depressive mood, and suicidal ideation. Situational factors included education level, household income, consumption of alcohol, engagement in smoking, and work schedule. The χ²-test and hierarchical logistic regression analysis were performed, reflecting the complex sample design. RESULTS: Age at menarche, childbirth experience, and body mass index among physiological factors and education level and work schedule among situational factors were found to be related to menstrual regularity. A higher risk of menstrual irregularities was found among those who had given birth (versus those who had not), had a high age at menarche (versus those with a low age at menarche), were obese (versus those who had a normal body mass index), had elementary school-level or lesser educational achievements (versus those with college graduate-level or higher educational achievements), and who had a shift work schedule (versus those with a fixed schedule). CONCLUSIONS: Intervention is needed for female workers who have these risk factors, and special attention must be paid to female workers who have a shift work schedule. Additionally, since body mass index can be controlled, intervention concerning body mass index is necessary to reduce menstrual irregularity.

Chronicling menstrual cycle patterns across the reproductive lifespan with real-world data.

The intricate hormonal and physiological changes of the menstrual cycle can influence health on a daily basis. Although prior studies have helped improve our understanding of the menstrual cycle, they often lack diversity in the populations included, sample size, and the span of reproductive and life stages. This paper aims to describe the dynamic differences in menstrual cycle characteristics and associated symptoms by age in a large global cohort of period-tracking application users. This work aims to contribute to our knowledge and understanding of female physiology at varying stages of reproductive aging. This cohort study included self-reported menstrual cycle and symptom information in a sample of Flo application users aged 18-55. Cycle and period length and their variability, and frequency of menstrual cycle symptom logs are described by the age of the user. Based on data logged by over 19 million global users of the Flo app, the length of the menstrual cycle and period show clear age-associated patterns. With higher age, cycles tend to get shorter (Cycle length: D ¯ = 1.85 days, Cohen's D = 0.59) and more variable (Cycle length SD: D ¯ = 0.42 days, Cohen's D = 0.09), until close to the chronological age (40-44) suggesting menopausal transition, when both cycles and periods become longer (Cycle length: D ¯ = 0.86 days, t = 48.85, Cohen's D = 0.26; Period length: D ¯ = 0.08, t = 15.6, Cohen's D = 0.07) and more variable (Cycle length SD: D ¯ = 2.80 days, t = 111.43, d = 0.51; Period length SD: D ¯ = 0.23 days, t = 67.81, Cohen's D = 0.31). The proportion of individuals with irregular cycles was highest in participants aged 51-55 (44.7%), and lowest in the 36-40 age group (28.3%). The spectrum of common menstrual cycle-related symptoms also varies with age. The frequency of logging of cramps and acne is lower in older participants, while logs of headache, backache, stress, and insomnia are higher in older users. Other symptoms show different patterns, such as breast tenderness and fatigue peaking between the ages of 20-40, or mood swings being most frequently logged in the youngest and oldest users. The menstrual cycle and related symptoms are not static throughout the lifespan. Understanding these age-related differences in cycle characteristics and symptoms is essential in understanding how best to care for and improve the daily experience for menstruators across the reproductive life span.

Preliminary investigation into long-term stress by isolated captivity-related changes of reproduction hormones in Cynomolgus monkey.

BACKGROUND: Stress profoundly affects physical and emotional well-being, extending its physiological influence to the female menstrual cycle, impeding the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, and affecting fertility by suppressing sex-stimulating hormones. METHODS: In this study, we meticulously analyzed menstrual cycles and corresponding hormonal fluctuations in three female Cynomolgus monkeys. RESULTS: The preliminary findings indicated lower-than-normal levels of cortisol, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and estradiol. Anovulatory bleeding occurred in one monkey, which could be linked to stress. In contrast to cortisol, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), which is correlated to cortisol levels, was consistently elevated in menstruating monkeys, suggesting its potential as a stress indicator. The non-menstruating group exhibited stress-related weight loss, emphasizing the observed ALP trends. CONCLUSIONS: Non-menstruating monkeys may experience more stress than menstruating monkeys. The implications of this study extend beyond the confines of primate studies and offer a valuable method for enhancing the welfare of female Cynomolgus monkeys.

Effects of Hormonal Contraception and the Menstrual Cycle on Fatigability and Recovery From an Anaerobic Exercise Test.

ABSTRACT: Cabre, HE, Ladan, AN, Moore, SR, Joniak, KE, Blue, MNM, Pietrosimone, BG, Hackney, AC, and Smith-Ryan, AE. Effects of hormonal contraception and the menstrual cycle on fatigability and recovery from an anaerobic exercise test. J Strength Cond Res 38(7): 1256-1265, 2024-This study sought to evaluate the effects of oral contraceptive (OC) and hormonal intrauterine device (H-IUD) use, compared with a eumenorrheic (EUM) cycle, on fatigability and recovery between hormone the phases. Peak power (PP), average power (AP), fatigue index (FI), blood lactate, vessel diameter, and blood flow (BF) were measured from a repeated sprint cycle test (10 × 6 seconds) in 60, healthy, active women (mean ± SD ; age: 26.5 ± 7.0 years, BMI: 22.5 ± 3.7 kg·m -2 ) who used monophasic OC (≥6 months; n = 21), had a H-IUD (≥6 months; n = 20), or had regular naturally occurring menstrual cycle (≥3 months) or had a nonhormonal IUD (EUM; n = 19). Subjects were randomly assigned to begin in either the low-hormone phase (LHP) or high-hormone phase (HHP) and were tested once in each phase. Separate univariate analyses of covariances assessed the change from HHP to LHP between the groups, covaried for progesterone, with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. All groups demonstrated similar changes in PP, AP, FI, blood lactate, vessel diameter, and BF between the phases ( p > 0.05). Although not significant, AP was higher in LHP for OC (Δ -248.2 ± 1,301.4 W) and EUM (Δ -19.5 ± 977.7 W) and higher in HHP for H-IUD (Δ 369.3 ± 1,123.0 W). Oral contraceptive group exhibited a higher FI (Δ 2.0%) and reduced blood lactate clearance (Δ 2.5%) in HHP. In recreationally active women, hormonal contraception and hormone phases may minimally impact fatigue and recovery. Individual elite female athletes may benefit from understanding hormonal contraception type as performance and recovery may slightly vary across the cycle.