Non-invasive prenatal testing: Assessing the availability and accessibility of information available to the pregnant population within the Republic of Ireland.

OBJECTIVE: While non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT) has been widely adopted throughout Europe, Australia, and the USA, population level access to NIPT varies considerably. Ireland has no national screening programme for fetal anomalies, although NIPT is available from out-of-country providers. We aimed to describe the availability of NIPT in Ireland and the quality of information available online from NIPT providers. METHODS: Information available online from NIPT providers in the Republic of Ireland was analysed by examining all healthcare facilities websites and reviewing private health insurance directories. Data on information provided by NIPT providers was collected by two independent researchers from April to May 2023. RESULTS: Four of the 19 maternity hospitals/units in Ireland had information on NIPT on their websites, with three including an explanation of NIPT, testing accuracy, and associated fees (€380-480). Twenty private clinics led by obstetric consultants advertised NIPT online, of which seventeen clinics included an explanation of NIPT, testing accuracy, and associated fees (€380-€650). Twenty-nine other providers, which included ultrasound clinics, direct-to-consumer laboratory testing, and General Practitioners, advertised NIPT with 18 of these providers including an explanation of NIPT, testing accuracy, and associated fees (€179-€630). CONCLUSION: While there is apparent demand for NIPT and it is available in Ireland, there is disparity between providers on the type and quality of information available. Difficulty obtaining accessible information, the associated financial costs and location of providers advertising NIPT are likely to be barriers to accessing NIPT. A national screening programme for aneuploidy should be considered to ensure both equitable access to and reliable information about prenatal screening.

Clinical strategy study on prenatal screening and diagnostic model for Down syndrome.

Exploring efficient and easily implementable prenatal screening strategies aims at birth defect prevention and control. However, there have been limited economic evaluations of non-invasive prenatal screening (NIPS) strategies in China. Furthermore, these studies were predominantly confined to local or geographically proximate provinces and lacked universality and representativeness. This study assesses the health economics of current prenatal screening strategies and NIPS as first-line screening programs, analyzing their efficacy to determine an optimal strategy. From the perspective of health economics, cost-effectiveness, cost-benefit, and single-factor sensitivity were conducted for five different screening strategies using a decision tree model. Among pregnant women aged < 35 years who underwent only one screening for foetal Down syndrome (DS), the detection rate, false positive rate and positive predictive value of NIPS for foetuses with DS were superior to those of the other four serological screening methods. Although applying NIPS as first-line screening method yields the highest efficacy and benefits, it currently lacks cost-effectiveness when compared to serological screening and sequential NIPS screening strategies.

Impact of Structural Differences on the Modeled Cost-Effectiveness of Noninvasive Prenatal Testing.

BACKGROUND: Noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT) was developed to improve the accuracy of prenatal screening to detect chromosomal abnormalities. Published economic analyses have yielded different incremental cost-effective ratios (ICERs), leading to conclusions of NIPT being dominant, cost-effective, and cost-ineffective. These analyses have used different model structures, and the extent to which these structural variations have contributed to differences in ICERs is unclear. AIM: To assess the impact of different model structures on the cost-effectiveness of NIPT for the detection of trisomy 21 (T21; Down syndrome). METHODS: A systematic review identified economic models comparing NIPT to conventional screening. The key variations in identified model structures were the number of health states and modeling approach. New models with different structures were developed in TreeAge and populated with consistent parameters to enable a comparison of the impact of selected structural variations on results. RESULTS: The review identified 34 economic models. Based on these findings, demonstration models were developed: 1) a decision tree with 3 health states, 2) a decision tree with 5 health states, 3) a microsimulation with 3 health states, and 4) a microsimulation with 5 health states. The base-case ICER from each model was 1) USD$34,474 (2023)/quality-adjusted life-year (QALY), 2) USD$14,990 (2023)/QALY, (3) USD$54,983 (2023)/QALY, and (4) NIPT was dominated. CONCLUSION: Model-structuring choices can have a large impact on the ICER and conclusions regarding cost-effectiveness, which may inadvertently affect policy decisions to support or not support funding for NIPT. The use of reference models could improve international consistency in health policy decision making for prenatal screening. HIGHLIGHTS: NIPT is a clinical area in which a variety of modeling approaches have been published, with wide variation in reported cost-effectiveness.This study shows that when broader contextual factors are held constant, varying the model structure yields results that range from NIPT being less effective and more expensive than conventional screening (i.e., NIPT was dominated) through to NIPT being more effective and more expensive than conventional screening with an ICER of USD$54,983 (2023)/QALY.Model-structuring choices may inadvertently affect policy decisions to support or not support funding of NIPT. Reference models could improve international consistency in health policy decision making for prenatal screening.

Benefits and harms of antenatal and newborn screening programmes in health economic assessments: the VALENTIA systematic review and qualitative investigation.

Background: Health economic assessments are used to determine whether the resources needed to generate net benefit from an antenatal or newborn screening programme, driven by multiple benefits and harms, are justifiable. It is not known what benefits and harms have been adopted by economic evaluations assessing these programmes and whether they omit benefits and harms considered important to relevant stakeholders. Objectives: (1) To identify the benefits and harms adopted by health economic assessments in this area, and to assess how they have been measured and valued; (2) to identify attributes or relevance to stakeholders that ought to be considered in future economic assessments; and (3) to make recommendations about the benefits and harms that should be considered by these studies. Design: Mixed methods combining systematic review and qualitative work. Systematic review methods: We searched the published and grey literature from January 2000 to January 2021 using all major electronic databases. Economic evaluations of an antenatal or newborn screening programme in one or more Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries were considered eligible. Reporting quality was assessed using the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards checklist. We identified benefits and harms using an integrative descriptive analysis and constructed a thematic framework. Qualitative methods: We conducted a meta-ethnography of the existing literature on newborn screening experiences, a secondary analysis of existing individual interviews related to antenatal or newborn screening or living with screened-for conditions, and a thematic analysis of primary data collected with stakeholders about their experiences with screening. Results: The literature searches identified 52,244 articles and reports, and 336 unique studies were included. Thematic framework resulted in seven themes: (1) diagnosis of screened for condition, (2) life-years and health status adjustments, (3) treatment, (4) long-term costs, (5) overdiagnosis, (6) pregnancy loss and (7) spillover effects on family members. Diagnosis of screened-for condition (115, 47.5%), life-years and health status adjustments (90, 37.2%) and treatment (88, 36.4%) accounted for most of the benefits and harms evaluating antenatal screening. The same themes accounted for most of the benefits and harms included in studies assessing newborn screening. Long-term costs, overdiagnosis and spillover effects tended to be ignored. The wide-reaching family implications of screening were considered important to stakeholders. We observed good overlap between the thematic framework and the qualitative evidence. Limitations: Dual data extraction within the systematic literature review was not feasible due to the large number of studies included. It was difficult to recruit healthcare professionals in the stakeholder's interviews. Conclusions: There is no consistency in the selection of benefits and harms used in health economic assessments in this area, suggesting that additional methods guidance is needed. Our proposed thematic framework can be used to guide the development of future health economic assessments evaluating antenatal and newborn screening programmes. Study registration: This study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42020165236. Funding: This award was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Health Technology Assessment programme (NIHR award ref: NIHR127489) and is published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 28, No. 25. See the NIHR Funding and Awards website for further award information.

Every year the NHS offers pregnant women screening tests to assess the chances of them or their unborn baby having or developing a health condition. It also offers screening tests for newborn babies to look for a range of health conditions. The implementation of screening programmes and the care for women and babies require many resources and funding for the NHS, so it is important that screening programmes represent good value for money. This means that the amount of money the NHS spends on a programme is justified by the amount of benefit that the programme gives. We wanted to see whether researchers consider all the important benefits and harms associated with screening of pregnant women and newborn babies when calculating value for money. To do this, we searched all studies available in developed countries to identify what benefits and harms they considered. We also considered the views of parents and healthcare professionals on the benefits and harms screening that creates for families and wider society. We found that the identification of benefits and harms of screening is complex because screening results affect a range of people (mother­baby, parents, extended family and wider society). Researchers calculating the value for money of screening programmes have, to date, concentrated on a narrow range of benefits and harms and ignored many factors that are important to people affected by screening results. From our discussions with parents and healthcare professionals, we found that wider impacts on families are an important consideration. Only one study we looked at considered wider impacts on families. Our work also found that parent's ability to recognise, absorb and apply new information to understand their child's screening results or condition is important. Healthcare professionals involve in screening should consider this when supporting families of children with a condition. We have created a list for researchers to identify the benefits and harms that are important to include in future studies. We have also identified different ways researchers can value these benefits and harms, so they are incorporated into their studies in a meaningful way.

Cost-effectiveness of antenatal fetal surveillance for medication-treated gestational diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relative cost-effectiveness of starting antenatal fetal surveillance at 32 vs. 36 weeks, in medication-treated gestational diabetes. METHODS: We performed a 2017-2022 retrospective cohort study of patients with medication-treated GDM who underwent BPPs. Patients diagnosed before 24 weeks, those delivered before 32 weeks, and those without BPPs or delivery data were excluded. Demographic and outcome data were abstracted by chart review. We performed a cost-effectiveness analysis regarding two outcomes: stillbirth, and decision to alter delivery timing following abnormal BPPs. RESULTS: A total of 652 pregnancies were included. Patients were 49% privately insured, 25% publicly insured, and 26% uninsured. We assumed that each BPP cost $145. In total, 1,284 BPPs occurred after 36 weeks, costing $186,180, and 2,041 BPPs occurred between 32 and 36 weeks, costing an additional $295,945. Twelve deliveries resulted from abnormal BPPs, all after 36 weeks. No stillbirths occurred. The cost to attempt to avoid one stillbirth was $40,177 across all patients. In our sample, starting surveillance at 36 weeks would have theoretically avoided all stillbirths, with cost savings per avoided stillbirth of $51,572 for privately insured patients, $14,123 for publicly insured patients, and $17,799 for patients without insurance. CONCLUSION: Based on this population with no stillbirths and no BPPs dictating delivery before 36 weeks, surveillance after 36 weeks may be safe and cost-effective. Our findings reflect opportunities for shared decision making and potential practice change, with greatest impact for low socioeconomic status patients and those without insurance.

Impact and economic analysis of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1)-targeted antenatal screening, England and Wales, 2021.

BackgroundHuman T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a neglected virus that can cause severe disease and be transmitted from mother to child through breastfeeding. Avoidance of breastfeeding prevents 80% of vertical transmission. The United Kingdom (UK) is currently assessing whether HTLV-1-targeted antenatal screening should be implemented.AimWe aimed to assess the impact and cost-effectiveness of a targeted programme to prevent HTLV-1 vertical transmission in England and Wales.MethodsWe estimated the number of pregnant women who have high risk of HTLV-1 infection based on their or their partner's country of birth. With data from 2021, we used a mathematical model to assess cost-effectiveness of HTLV-1 antenatal screening. We also estimated the annual number of infant infections and the number that could be prevented with screening and intervention.ResultsWe estimate that ca 99,000 pregnant women in England and Wales have high risk of HTLV-1 infection. In the absence of screening, 74 (range: 25-211) HTLV-1 infections in infants would be expected to occur every year in England and Wales. Implementation of targeted screening would prevent 58 (range: 19-164) infant infections annually. The intervention is effective (incremental 0.00333 quality-adjusted life years (QALY)) and cost-saving (GBP -57.56 (EUR -66.85)).ConclusionOur findings support implementation of HTLV-1 targeted antenatal screening to reduce vertical transmission from mothers to infants in the UK.

A systematic review on thalassaemia screening and birth reduction initiatives: cost to success.

INTRODUCTION: Thalassaemia has been prevalent with high morbidity and mortality rates since 1925. Although there is a lack of systematic review on the costs of prevention that has yielded reductions in thalassaemia prevalence, this review will show a widespread presence of complex but effective strategies in reducing national thalassaemia prevalence. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A systematic search was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2020). Designated keywords were combined with search functions and Boolean operators in databases like Scopus, Web of Science and several other search databases. RESULTS: The search identifed 5425 potential articles. Most countries reported a decline in thalassaemia prevalence after implementing intervention programmes for several decades. The screening methods, however, varies, and the speed of reductions depends on the type of screening approach that involves blood screening of adolescence and antenatal mothers and, in some countries, includes termination of pregnancy. In addition, the cost of these initiatives varies as it was challenging to find a common denominator. However, the endpoint concedes that the cost of screening, although substantial, would be offset by the cost of reduction of cases. In some countries, cost-effectiveness analyses have been reported to support the initiatives of thalassaemia screening and prevention in the long run. CONCLUSION: The results showed significant variations in success rates with a significant reduction in the prevalence of Thalassaemia. Most successful are countries with comprehensive and aggressive prevention and control programmes that engaged with lab screening, counselling, and termination of pregnancy as a package.

Cost-effectiveness of BRCA1 testing at time of obstetrical prenatal carrier screening for cancer prevention.

BACKGROUND: Improved technologies paired with an increase in access to genetic testing have led to the availability of expanded carrier screening evaluating hundreds of disorders. Currently, most autosomal dominant mutations, such as BRCA1, are not included in expanded carrier assays. Screening pregnant or preconception reproductive-aged women for BRCA1 may present a unique opportunity to perform population-based screening for patients at a time when precancer screening, chemoprevention, and/or risk-reducing surgery may be beneficial. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to inform clinical decision-making as to whether the universal incorporation of BRCA1 testing at the time of obstetrical prenatal carrier screening is cost-effective. STUDY DESIGN: A decision analysis and Markov model was created. The initial decision point in the model was BRCA1 testing at the time of expanded carrier screening. Model probabilities, cost, and utility values were derived from published literature. For BRCA1-positive patients, the model simulated breast cancer screening and risk-reducing surgical interventions. A cycle length of 1 year and a time horizon of 47 years were used to simulate the lifespan of patients. The setting was obstetrical clinics in the United States, and the participants were a theoretical cohort of 1,429,074 pregnant patients who annually underwent expanded carrier screening. RESULTS: Among our cohort, BRCA1 testing resulted in the identification of an additional 3716 BRCA1-positive patients, the prevention of 1394 breast and ovarian cancer cases, and 1084 fewer deaths. BRCA1 testing was a cost-effective strategy compared with no BRCA1 testing with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $86,001 per quality-adjusted life years. In a 1-way sensitivity analysis, we varied the prevalence of BRCA1 in the population from 0.00% to 20.00% and found that BRCA1 testing continued to be the cost-effective strategy until the prevalence rate was reduced to 0.16%. Multiple additional sensitivity analyses did not substantially affect the cost-effectiveness. CONCLUSION: The addition of BRCA1 testing to obstetrical prenatal carrier screening is a cost-effective management strategy to identify at-risk women at a time when cancer screening and preventive strategies can be effective. Despite the burden of additional genetic counseling, prenatal care represents a unique opportunity to implement population-based genetic testing.

Routine screening for hepatitis C in pregnancy is cost-effective in a large urban population in Ireland: a retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether risk factor-based screening in pregnancy is failing to identify women with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and to assess the cost-effectiveness of universal screening. DESIGN: Retrospective study and model-based economic evaluation. SETTING: Two urban tertiary referral maternity units, currently using risk factor-based screening for HCV infection. POPULATION: Pregnant women who had been tested for hepatitis B, HIV but not HCV. METHODS: Anonymised sera were tested for HCV antibody. Positive sera were tested for HCV antigen. A cost-effectiveness analysis of a change to universal screening was performed using a Markov model to simulate disease progression and Monte Carlo simulations for probabilistic sensitivity analysis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Presence of HCV antigen and cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY). RESULTS: In all, 4655 samples were analysed. Twenty had HCV antibodies and five HCV antigen. This gives an active infection rate of 5/4655, or 0.11%, compared with a rate of 0.15% in the risk-factor group. This prevalence is 65% lower than a previous study in the same hospitals from 2001 to 2005. The calculated incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) for universal screening was €3,315 per QALY gained. CONCLUSION: This study showed that the prevalence of HCV infection in pregnant women in the Dublin region has declined by 65% over the past two decades. Risk factor-based screening misses a significant proportion of infections. A change to universal maternal screening for hepatitis C would be cost-effective in our population. TWEETABLE ABSTRACT: Universal maternal screening for hepatitis C is cost-effective in this urban Irish population.

A single center experience with publicly funded clinical exome sequencing for neurodevelopmental disorders or multiple congenital anomalies.

Exome sequencing (ES) is an important diagnostic tool for individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) and/or multiple congenital anomalies (MCA). However, the cost of ES limits the test's accessibility for many patients. We evaluated the yield of publicly funded clinical ES, performed at a tertiary center in Israel, over a 3-year period (2018-2020). Probands presented with (1) moderate-to-profound global developmental delay (GDD)/intellectual disability (ID); or (2) mild GDD/ID with epilepsy or congenital anomaly; and/or (3) MCA. Subjects with normal chromosomal microarray analysis who met inclusion criteria were included, totaling 280 consecutive cases. Trio ES (proband and parents) was the default option. In 252 cases (90.0%), indication of NDD was noted. Most probands were males (62.9%), and their mean age at ES submission was 9.3 years (range 1 month to 51 years). Molecular diagnosis was reached in 109 probands (38.9%), mainly due to de novo variants (91/109, 83.5%). Disease-causing variants were identified in 92 genes, 15 of which were implicated in more than a single case. Male sex, families with multiple-affected members and premature birth were significantly associated with lower ES yield (p < 0.05). Other factors, including MCA and coexistence of epilepsy, autism spectrum disorder, microcephaly or abnormal brain magnetic resonance imaging findings, were not associated with the yield. To conclude, our findings support the utility of clinical ES in a real-world setting, as part of a publicly funded genetic workup for individuals with GDD/ID and/or MCA.

The cost-effectiveness of genotyping versus sequencing for prenatal cystic fibrosis carrier screening.

OBJECTIVE: We investigated the cost-effectiveness of three sequential prenatal cystic fibrosis (CF) carrier screening strategies: genotyping both partners, genotyping one partner then sequencing the second, and sequencing both partners. METHOD: A decision-analytic model compared the strategies in a theoretical cohort of four million pregnant couples in the US population and five racial/ethnic sub-populations. Inputs were obtained from literature and varied in sensitivity analysis. Outcomes included cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY), missed carrier couples, affected newborns, missed prenatal diagnoses, terminations, and procedure-related losses. The cost-effectiveness threshold was $100,000/QALY. RESULTS: Sequencing both partners identified 1099 carrier couples that were missed by genotyping both partners, leading to 273 fewer missed prenatal diagnoses, 152 more terminations, and 152 fewer affected newborns. A similar trend was observed in the genotyping followed by sequencing strategy. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of genotyping followed by sequencing compared to genotyping both partners was $180,004/QALY and the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of sequencing both partners compared to genotyping followed by sequencing was $17.6 million/QALY. Sequencing both partners was cost-effective below $339 per test, genotyping/sequencing between $340 and $1837, and genotyping both partners above $1838. Sequencing was not cost-effective among five racial/ethnic sub-populations. CONCLUSION: Despite improved outcomes, sequencing for prenatal CF carrier screening was not cost-effective compared to genotyping. The clinical significance of the incremental cost-effectiveness of CF carrier screening is a matter of deliberation for public policy debate.

Contingent prenatal screening for frequent aneuploidies with cell-free fetal DNA analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the results of contingent screening for common aneuploidies at our center from June 2017 to June 2019. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Traditional screening tests were performed using a combination of biochemical markers and ultrasound measurements in the first and second trimesters to assess the risk of trisomies 21 (T21), 18 (T18) and 13 (T13). Cell-free DNA (cf-DNA) testing was offered (Harmony test) to pregnant women at high risk (>1/280 for T21 and > 1/150 for T13 and T18) and a normal early morphology scan. In positive cases, prenatal sampling was strongly recommended to confirm the results by gold standard methods (QF-PCR and karyotyping). Newborns' phenotypes were corroborated after birth in all cases. RESULTS: In this prospective study, 8153 pregnant women were enrolled, resulting in 390 at high risk according to traditional screening tests. cfDNA testing was offered to 383 women. Traditional screening tests showed a false negative rate of 9.68% for T21. Traditional test sensitivity for T21 was 90.3%, for a false positive rate of 4.17% and a positive predictive value of 7.6%. The positive and negative predictive value for cfDNA testing was 100%. The approach used avoided invasive procedures in 91.3% of women at high risk. The prevalence of chromosomal abnormalities in the population analyzed was 1 in 164, and 1 in 210 for T21. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that offering cf-DNA testing to women at high risk in traditional tests (including those with risks >1 in 50) significantly reduces false positives and, therefore, the number of invasive tests. Extending the use of cf-DNA testing to intermediate risk categories may be cost effective.

Out-of-pocket and private pay in clinical genetic testing: A scoping review.

Full coverage of the cost of clinical genetic testing is not always available through public or private insurance programs, or a public healthcare system. Consequently, some patients may be faced with the decision of whether to finance testing out-of-pocket (OOP), meet OOP expenses required by their insurer, or not proceed with testing. A scoping review was conducted to identify literature associated with patient OOP and private pay in clinical genetic testing. Seven databases (EMBASE, MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsychINFO, PAIS, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and the JBI Evidence-Based Practice database) were searched, resulting in 83 unique publications included in the review. The presented evidence includes a descriptive analysis, followed by a narrative account of the extracted data. Results were divided into four groups according to clinical indication: (1) hereditary breast and ovarian cancer, (2) other hereditary cancers, (3) prenatal testing, (4) other clinical indications. The majority of studies focused on hereditary cancer and prenatal genetic testing. Overall trends indicated that OOP costs have fallen and payer coverage has improved, but OOP expenses continue to present a barrier to patients who do not qualify for full coverage.

The impact of antenatal syphilis point of care testing on pregnancy outcomes: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Mother-to-child transmission of syphilis remains a leading cause of neonatal death and stillbirth, disproportionally affecting women in low-resource settings where syphilis prevalence rates are high and testing rates low. Recently developed syphilis point-of-care tests (POCTs) are promising alternatives to conventional laboratory screening in low-resource settings as they do not require a laboratory setting, intensive technical training and yield results in 10-15 minutes thereby enabling both diagnosis and treatment in a single visit. Aim of this review was to provide clarity on the benefits of different POCTs and assess whether the implementation of syphilis POCTs is associated with decreased numbers of syphilis-related adverse pregnancy outcomes. METHODS: Following the PRISMA guidelines, three electronic databases (PubMed, Medline (Ovid), Cochrane) were systematically searched for intervention studies and cost-effectiveness analyses investigating the association between antenatal syphilis POCT and pregnancy outcomes such as congenital syphilis, low birth weight, prematurity, miscarriage, stillbirth as well as perinatal, fetal or infant death. RESULTS: Nine out of 278 initially identified articles were included, consisting of two clinical studies and seven modelling studies. Studies compared the effect on pregnancy outcomes of treponemal POCT, non-treponemal POCT and dual POCT to laboratory screening and no screening program. Based on the clinical studies, significantly higher testing and treatment rates, as well as a significant reduction (93%) in adverse pregnancy outcomes was reported for treponemal POCT compared to laboratory screening. Compared to no screening and laboratory screening, modelling studies assumed higher treatment rates for POCT and predicted the most prevented adverse pregnancy outcomes for treponemal POCT, followed by a dual treponemal and non-treponemal POCT strategy. CONCLUSION: Implementation of treponemal POCT in low-resource settings increases syphilis testing and treatment rates and prevents the most syphilis-related adverse pregnancy outcomes compared to no screening, laboratory screening, non-treponemal POCT and dual POCT. Regarding the benefits of dual POCT, more research is needed. Overall, this review provides evidence on the contribution of treponemal POCT to healthier pregnancies and contributes greater clarity on the impact of diverse diagnostic methods available for the detection of syphilis.

Health Insurance Status of Pregnant Women and the Likelihood of Receipt of Antenatal Screening for HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa.

BACKGROUND: We investigated if initiating preventive care against HIV vertical transmission by antenatal HIV screening is independent of the patients' source of financial reimbursement for the care received in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). METHODS: Using information from the WHO's Global Health Expenditure Database and the Demographic Health Surveys Database for 27 sub-Saharan countries, we used Spearman's correlation and adjusted survey logistic regression to determine the potential relationship between enrollment in health insurance and the likelihood that expectant mothers would be offered antenatal HIV screening. RESULTS: We found that expectant mothers covered by health insurance were more than twice as likely to be offered antenatal screening for HIV compared to the uninsured. The likelihood differed by the type of insurance plan the expectant mother carried. DISCUSSION: Health insurance is more of a financial tool that this study finds to be necessary to boost the uptake of preventive and therapeutic HIV care in SSA. CONCLUSION: The ensuing disparity in receiving proper care could hinder the goals of 90-90-90 and the forthcoming 95-95-95 plan in SSA.

Economic evaluation of the sFlt-1/PlGF ratio for the short-term prediction of preeclampsia in a Japanese cohort of the PROGNOSIS Asia study.

The PRediction of short-term Outcomes in preGNant wOmen with Suspected preeclampsIa Study (PROGNOSIS) Asia validated the use of the soluble fms-like tyrosine 1/placental growth factor (sFlt-1/PlGF) ratio cutoff value of ≤38 to rule out the occurrence of preeclampsia in the short term in Asian women. We assessed the economic impact of the introduction of the sFlt-1/PlGF ratio test for predicting preeclampsia in Japan using data from the Japanese cohort of PROGNOSIS Asia. The cost analysis was developed with estimates in either a no-test scenario, with clinical decisions based on standard diagnostic procedures alone, or a test scenario, in which the sFlt-1/PlGF ratio test was used in addition to standard diagnostic procedures. For both scenarios, rates of hospitalization and other test characteristics were obtained from the results for the Japanese cohort in PROGNOSIS Asia. The total cost per patient was the main outcome of this cost analysis model. Introduction of the sFlt-1/PlGF ratio test using a cutoff value of 38 resulted in a reduced hospitalization rate compared with the rate in the no-test scenario (14.4% versus 8.7%). The reduction in the rate of hospitalizations led to an estimated 16 373 JPY reduction in healthcare costs per patient. The sFlt-1/PlGF ratio test is likely to reduce the unnecessary hospitalization of women at low risk of developing preeclampsia in the short term while also identifying high-risk individuals requiring appropriate management. Reducing unnecessary hospitalizations would result in significant cost savings in the Japanese healthcare system.

Optimizing Fetal Aneuploidy Screening in an Austere Military Clinical Environment: A Prenatal Cost Comparison.

INTRODUCTION: Austere clinical settings, including remote military installations, face unique challenges in screening pregnant women for aneuploidy. The objective of this study was to compare the direct and indirect prenatal costs of traditional 2-part serum-based screening to cell-free DNA (cfDNA) for detection of trisomies 18 and 21 for a military treatment facility with limited in-house perinatal resources. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We identified Naval Hospital Guantanamo Bay as a surrogate for an austere clinical environment. A prenatal cost of care analysis incorporating direct and indirect expenses was performed to compare the 2 aneuploidy screening strategies for a theoretical cohort of 100 patients for detection of trisomies 18 and 21. The baseline aneuploidy uptake rate was determined using a historical cohort. Test performance characteristics were obtained from the contracting laboratory. Aneuploidy rates and costs were calculated using previously published data. RESULTS: Assuming a baseline screen uptake rate of 87%, initial screening using the traditional approach would directly cost $8,285.01 versus $44,140.32 with cfDNA. Considering indirect costs such as travel, consultative services, evaluation and follow-up testing of an abnormal screen result, and lost productivity, the cost difference narrows to $14,458.25 over a 5- to 6-year period. Cost equivalence is achieved when cfDNA is priced at $341.17 per test. CONCLUSION: Cell-free DNA as an initial screening strategy offers enhanced detection rates for trisomies 18 and 21 but remains more costly than traditional screening when incorporating direct and indirect expenses. In a low volume setting with limited resources, the added cost may be justified given the implications of unrecognized aneuploidy.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of a model of first-trimester prediction and prevention of preterm pre-eclampsia compared with usual care.

OBJECTIVES: Pre-eclampsia (PE) causes substantial maternal and neonatal mortality and morbidity. In addition to the personal impact on women, children and their families, PE has a significant economic impact on our society. Recent research suggests that a first-trimester multivariate model is highly predictive of preterm (< 37 weeks' gestation) PE and can be combined successfully with targeted prophylaxis (low-dose aspirin), resulting in an 80% reduction in prevalence of disease. The aim of this study was to examine the potential health outcomes and cost implications following introduction of first-trimester prediction and prevention of preterm PE within a public healthcare setting, compared with usual care, and to conduct a cost-effectiveness analysis to inform health-service decisions regarding implementation of such a program. METHODS: A decision-analytic model was used to compare usual care with the proposed first-trimester screening intervention within the obstetric population (n = 6822) attending two public hospitals within a metropolitan district health service in New South Wales, Australia, between January 2015 and December 2016. The model, applied from early pregnancy, included exposure to a variety of healthcare professionals and addressed type of risk assessment (usual care or first-trimester screening) and use of (compliance with) low-dose aspirin prescribed prophylactically for prevention of PE. All pathways culminated in six possible health outcomes, ranging from no PE to maternal death. Results were presented as the number of cases of PE gained/avoided and the incremental increase/decrease in economic costs arising from the intervention compared with usual care. Significant assumptions were tested in sensitivity/uncertainty analyses. RESULTS: The intervention produced, across all gestational ages, 31 fewer cases of PE and reduced aggregate economic health-service costs by 1 431 186 Australian dollars over the 2-year period. None of the tested iterations of uncertainty analyses reported additional cases of PE or higher economic costs. The new intervention based on first-trimester screening dominated usual care. CONCLUSION: This cost-effectiveness analysis demonstrated a reduction in prevalence of preterm PE and substantial cost savings associated with a population-based program of first-trimester prediction and prevention of PE, and supports implementation of such a policy. © 2020 International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Cost-effectiveness of dual maternal HIV and syphilis testing strategies in high and low HIV prevalence countries: a modelling study.

BACKGROUND: Dual HIV and syphilis testing might help to prevent mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV and syphilis through increased case detection and treatment. We aimed to model and assess the cost-effectiveness of dual testing during antenatal care in four countries with varying HIV and syphilis prevalence. METHODS: In this modelling study, we developed Markov models of HIV and syphilis in pregnant women to estimate costs and infant health outcomes of maternal testing at the first antenatal care visit with individual HIV and syphilis tests (base case) and at the first antenatal care visit with a dual rapid diagnostic test (scenario one). We additionally evaluated retesting during late antenatal care and at delivery with either individual tests (scenario two) or a dual rapid diagnosis test (scenario three). We modelled four countries: South Africa, Kenya, Colombia, and Ukraine. Strategies with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) less than the country-specific cost-effectiveness threshold (US$500 in Kenya, $750 in South Africa, $3000 in Colombia, and $1000 in Ukraine) per disability-adjusted life-year averted were considered cost-effective. FINDINGS: Routinely offering testing at the first antenatal care visit with a dual rapid diagnosis test was cost-saving compared with the base case in all four countries (ICER: -$26 in Kenya,-$559 in South Africa, -$844 in Colombia, and -$454 in Ukraine). Retesting during late antenatal care with a dual rapid diagnostic test (scenario three) was cost-effective compared with scenario one in all four countries (ICER: $270 in Kenya, $260 in South Africa, $2207 in Colombia, and $205 in Ukraine). INTERPRETATION: Incorporating dual rapid diagnostic tests in antenatal care can be cost-saving across countries with varying HIV prevalence. Countries should consider incorporating dual HIV and syphilis rapid diagnostic tests as the first test in antenatal care to support efforts to eliminate MTCT of HIV and syphilis. FUNDING: WHO, US Agency for International Development, and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Socioeconomic barriers to prenatal diagnosis of critical congenital heart disease.

OBJECTIVE: The study was designed to assess the impact of socioeconomic barriers on the rate of prenatal diagnosis of critical congenital heart disease (CCHD). METHODS: This was a retrospective review of the Medicaid analytic extract (MAX) dataset, a national Medicaid administrative claims database with linked maternal-infant claims, from 2007 to 2012. Infants with CCHD were identified by searching for International Classification of Diseases (ICD) 9 codes and Procedural Coding System (PCS) codes for CCHD within the first 6 months after the delivery date. Multivariate logistic regression was used to evaluate the effect of maternal and socioeconomic factors on the prenatal diagnosis rate. RESULTS: There were 4702 mother-infant dyads included in the analysis. The prenatal diagnosis rate of CCHD was 27.9%. Factors independently associated with odds of prenatal diagnosis of CCHD were presence of maternal diabetes (OR, 2.055; P < .001), ZIP code level median household income (OR, 1.005; P = .015), sonographer labor quotient (OR, 1.804; P = .047), the year of the delivery (OR, 1.155; P < .001), and needing a view other than a 4 chamber or outflow tract view to obtain the diagnosis (OR, 0.383; P < .001). CONCLUSION: Maternal health, diabetes, socioeconomic factors, and access to sonographers impacts prenatal diagnosis of CCHD.