Application of data-driven blended online-offline teaching in medicinal chemistry for pharmacy students: a randomized comparison.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of implementing a data-driven blended online-offline (DDBOO) teaching approach in the medicinal chemistry course. METHODS: A total of 118 third-year students majoring in pharmacy were enrolled from September 2021 to January 2022. The participants were randomly assigned to either the DDBOO teaching group or the traditional lecture-based learning (LBL) group for medicinal chemistry. Pre- and post-class quizzes were administered, along with an anonymous questionnaire distributed to both groups to assess students' perceptions and experiences. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the pre-class quiz scores between the DDBOO and LBL groups (T=-0.637, P = 0.822). However, after class, the mean quiz score of the DDBOO group was significantly higher than that of the LBL group (T = 3.742, P < 0.001). Furthermore, the scores for learning interest, learning motivation, self-learning skill, mastery of basic knowledge, teamwork skills, problem-solving ability, innovation ability, and satisfaction, as measured by the questionnaire, were significantly higher in the DDBOO group than in the traditional group (all P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The DDBOO teaching method effectively enhances students' academic performance and satisfaction. Further research and promotion of this approach are warranted.

Hybrid teaching after COVID-19: advantages, challenges and optimization strategies.

BACKGROUND: In the post-pandemic era of higher education, hybrid teaching has emerged as a prevalent approach and is anticipated to persist as a defining trend in the future teaching reforms worldwide. However, despite its widespread adoption, certain limitations have become apparent. The objective of this study is to identify the genuine factors that impact students' performance, explore strategies that teachers can employ to enhance their teaching effectiveness and enhance students' academic self-efficacy. METHODS: The study was performed among undergraduate medical students enrolled in Physiology course at Harbin Medical University in 2020 and 2022. Since 2020, influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic, a hybrid teaching method based on an established offline teaching model called BOPPPS was implemented. A questionnaire was performed in both 2020 and 2022 to evaluate students' satisfaction and efficiency of our hybrid teaching. A comparison was also carried out on the final examination scores of students majoring in Pharmacy and Clinical Pharmacy across the years 2020 to 2022. RESULTS: The final examination scores of students in 2022 were significantly lower than those in 2020 and 2021 both in Pharmacy and Clinical Pharmacy majors. There was also a decrease of the score in students of Clinical Pharmacy in 2021 compared to 2020. The questionnaire indicated that over half (52.0%) of the students in 2022 preferred offline teaching method, in contrast to 39.1% in 2020. There were obvious changes in students from 2020 to 2022 about the disadvantages of hybrid teaching, the improvement of students' learning ability and the duration of students' autonomous learning. Through cross statistical analysis, online learning styles, learning ability improvement and students' learning burden have been identified as the primary factors influencing their preference for future teaching method. CONCLUSIONS: Hybrid teaching is still a necessary trend in the future teaching reform base on its multiple advantages. However, in order to improve the teaching outcomes and foster students' participation and learning initiatives, it is imperative to undertake additional reforms in the future teaching process.

Building Interprofessional Competencies Through a Collaborative Prescribing Activity With Osteopathic, Pharmacy, and Physician Assistant Students.

Introduction: Medication errors can lead to significant adverse events. Nearly 50% of medication errors occur during the prescription-writing stage of the medication use process, and effective interprofessional collaboration and communication are key to reducing error in this process. Methods: We developed a three-part, 60-minute, interprofessional education activity providing medical, physician assistant, and pharmacy students the opportunity to practice collegial interprofessional communication surrounding prescribing practices. Learners met virtually initially as a large group and divided into small groups facilitated by a health professional. Part 1 involved reviewing two prescriptions prepared by learners; part 2 was a discussion about the education, roles, and responsibilities of each profession; and part 3 focused on identifying prescription errors in examples provided by faculty. Students completed a post-pre survey measuring their perception of learning the Interprofessional Collaborative Competency Attainment Survey (ICCAS) areas. Results: Of 317 participants (151 doctor of osteopathy, 68 master of physician assistant studies, and 98 doctor of pharmacy students), 286 completed the post-pre survey, for a 90% response rate. Students reported statistically significant (p < .001) increases in all 20 questions spanning the six ICCAS areas. Discussion: The virtual format allowed multiple institutions to participate from various locations. It broadened the learners' experience by fostering interaction among those with varied perspectives and allowed collaboration between locations and programs that otherwise could not have participated. The activity introduced students to virtual collaboration and key telehealth skills, enhancing their confidence and familiarity with virtual interactions in a professional setting.

Exploring the perceptions of faculty members about research courses in undergraduate pharmacy curriculum: A qualitative study.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: The commitment of pharmacy graduates to patient care and research is crucial to advancing pharmaceutical science and practice. Consequently, the value of involving undergraduate pharmacy students in research has been increasingly recognized. Given that the College of Pharmacy at Qatar University offers two undergraduate pharmacy research courses, it is relevant to explore the perception of faculty members of the delivery, impact, facilitators, barriers, and suggested improvements in these courses. This exploration will help to improve the existing curriculum and to highlight the prospective impact of student involvement in undergraduate pharmacy research courses on the personal and professional growth of students, as well as on the progressive evolution of the pharmacy profession. METHODS: A qualitative exploratory case study was performed in which five virtual focus groups were conducted. All eligible faculty members from the clinical pharmacy and pharmaceutical science departments with experience supervising students who had taken one or two undergraduate pharmacy research courses were invited to participate. The focus group questions were based on the Theoretical domain framework of behavioral determinants. Verbatim transcription was performed, and the collected data were thematically analyzed using the computer-assisted coding software NVivo®. RESULTS: Of the 26 eligible faculty members, 21 participated in this study. Five deductive themes were identified: social professional role and influences, beliefs about capabilities, skills, beliefs about consequences and goals, and environmental resources and behavioral regulations. Overall, faculty members identified themselves as assessors and mentors. Participants expected students to possess independence, responsibility, and motivation. They believed that students generally required more practical research skills. Several benefits of incorporating students into undergraduate research have been highlighted, including increased publication productivity and quality. However, several hurdles to undergraduate research in pharmacy have been identified, including limited resources, limited timeframes, and sometimes delayed ethical approval. CONCLUSION: Faculty members expressed optimism regarding the undergraduate research courses. However, some logistical concerns, including the lengthy ethical approval process and resource availability, must be addressed to optimize the effectiveness of these courses.

[Considering Medical Professionalism from the Standpoint of Pharmacy Education].

Worldwide interest in teaching medical professionalism has increased drastically over the past two decades and is recognized as an important core competency. It is also essential in pharmacy education. However, there is no single definition of medical professionalism owing to its multifaceted nature, leading to difficulty in understanding it. The foundational concept of professionalism are the social contract and accountability, which describe the relationship between the profession and the society which it serves. Profession must understand expectations from the society, which is trustworthy, assures competence, and devoted to the public good for the contract based on their mutual trust. In "teaching," three basic educational actions ("setting expectations," "providing experiences," and "evaluating outcomes") are required. There are two learning goals of professionalism education: the minimum goal of not doing unprofessional acts and the aspirational goal of pursuing a higher level of interiorized professionalism which leads to the professional identity formation. The true professionals are "reflective practitioners," who have the ability to manage ambiguous problems using their interiorized professionalism in complicated situations. Therefore, reflection is one of the central concepts of professionalism education. The Professionalism Mini-Evaluation Exercise (P-MEX), an observational tool to evaluate medical professionalism, has some favorable aspects; the Japanese version is available and is a guide to specific actions for professionalism through its items, although some cautions must be exercised when using it. Considering that teaching professionalism includes not only formal but informal and hidden curricula, all of the staff in the educational environments should consider professionalism education by understanding professionalism.

Enhancing hypertension pharmacotherapeutics education by integrating social determinants of health.

OBJECTIVE: Social determinants of health (SDOHs) play a significant role in hypertension management. Pharmacy program accreditation standards include that students should understand SDOHs. However, there are limited data regarding approaches to incorporating SDOHs within pharmacotherapeutics courses. This study evaluated the changes in student knowledge, understanding, perceptions, beliefs, and confidence by integrating SDOH topics in hypertension pharmacotherapeutics lectures. METHODS: The study invited students enrolled in cardiovascular pharmacotherapeutics courses at 2 institutions to participate. Participation involved a preintervention questionnaire, a lecture on clinical management of hypertension incorporating SDOH concepts, an assignment involving reading a journal article and answering related questions, and a postintervention questionnaire. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS, with a predetermined α level of 0.05 for statistical significance. Mean composite questionnaire scores were calculated and compared with Wilcoxon signed rank test. RESULTS: Of 109 students, the response rate was 85.3 % (93 participants). The combined questionnaire results demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in all questionnaire item composites. The open-ended knowledge assessment yielded a mean score of 5.75 (range 3-6). CONCLUSION: The study intervention enhanced student knowledge, understanding, perceptions, beliefs, and confidence regarding the impact of SDOHs on hypertension. This practical and reproducible approach offers a valuable method for incorporating SDOH concepts into pharmacotherapeutics courses.

Evaluating the Impact of an Innovative Integrative Health-Focused Elective in a Doctor of Pharmacy Program.

OBJECTIVE: To assess knowledge and perceptions of integrative health principles. METHODS: This was a retrospective, pre-post observational cohort study evaluating Doctor of Pharmacy students following completion of an innovative elective course that was offered between 2020-2022. This Integrated Health in Pharmacy elective was created at the University at Buffalo School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences in the Spring of 2020. The primary objective was to assess student knowledge of integrative health principles. The secondary objective was to assess student confidence and perceptions of integrative health principles. RESULTS: Students completed a pre-course assessment (n = 80/81) and a post-course assessment (n = 73/81). Overall, the mean (SD) performance on the assessment questions increased between the pre-post assessment groups (57.59 [12.98]% vs 65.46 [14.43]%). Survey results indicated that students' perceptions and confidence pertaining to integrative health increased after completing this elective course offering. CONCLUSION: Participation in this innovative elective course was associated with improved knowledge and perceptions of integrative health principles.

[Evaluation of Pharmacy Students' Understanding of Clinical Trials and Research through Questionnaires Before and After the Hospital Practical Training].

A questionnaire survey was conducted to evaluate practical training and improve education on clinical trial and research. This survey was based on the results of questionnaire before and after the practical training undertaken by 240 pharmaceutical students (Kanto region; 1 university, Tokai region; 2 university, Kinki region; 9 university) at Mie University Hospital between 2011 and 2022. In the questionnaire before practical training, lectures in university (n=219, 91%) were the main source of information on clinical trials and research. Fifty-two students (22%) correctly answered the contents of phase 1-4 trials. As an occupation that can perform clinical research coordinator (CRC)'s work, only 7 students (3%) answered that "all medical and non-medical professionals" can perform the CRC's duties. Regarding the understanding of terms related to clinical trials and research, more than 90% of the students understood the meaning of "subjects," "informed consent," and "placebo" even before practical training. Otherwise, even after practical training, students' understanding of "reimbursement," "follow-up period," "audit," or "direct access" was less than 80%. Practical training improved the understanding of terms such as clinical trial (Wilcoxon signed-rank test, p<0.001), clinical research phase 1-4 trials (Wilcoxon signed-rank test, p<0.001), interest in clinical trials and research (McNemar-Bowker test, p<0.001), and understanding of CRC's work (McNemar-Bowker test, p<0.001). We will improve the content of practical training and bequeath the knowledge and importance of drug discovery and development to the next generation.

Academic performance among pharmacy students using virtual vs. face-to-face team-based learning.

INTRODUCTION: This study compares pharmacy students' performance using face-to-face (FTF) team-based learning (TBL) vs. virtual TBL across multiple courses and different academic levels while accounting for student demographic and academic factors. METHODS: The study included pharmacy students from different academic levels (P1-P3) who were enrolled in three didactic courses taught using FTF TBL and virtual TBL. Multiple generalized linear models (GLMs) were performed to compare students' performance on individual readiness assurance tests (iRATs), team readiness assurance tests (tRATs), team application exercises (tAPPs), summative exams, and total course scores using FTF TBL vs. virtual TBL, adjusting for students' age, sex, race, and cumulative grade point average (cGPA). RESULTS: The study involved a total of 356 pharmacy students distributed across different academic levels and learning modalities: P1 students [FTF TBL (n = 26), virtual TBL (n = 42)], P2 students [FTF TBL (n = 77), virtual TBL (n = 71)], and P3 students [FTF TBL (n = 65), virtual TBL (n = 75)]. In the P1 cohort, the virtual group had higher iRAT and tRAT scores but lower tAPP scores than the FTF TBL group, with no significant differences in summative exams or total course scores. For P2 students, the virtual TBL group had higher iRAT and tRAT scores but lower summative exam scores and total course scores than the FTF TBL group, with no significant differences in tAPP scores. In the P3 student group, the virtual TBL group had higher iRAT, tRAT, tAPP, summative exam, and total course scores than the FTF TBL group. CONCLUSIONS: Students' performance in virtual TBL vs. FTF TBL in the pharmacy didactic curriculum varies depending on the course content, academic year, and type of assessment.

The Intersection of Growth Mindset and Accreditation in Pharmacy Education.

OBJECTIVES: To describe existing growth mindset literature within pharmacy and health care education, describe how a growth mindset can be beneficial in the accreditation process, and propose potential ways to promote a growth mindset in faculty, preceptors, students, and staff within pharmacy education. FINDINGS: To help pharmacy learners develop a growth mindset, existing literature emphasizes the need for a shift toward and aligning assessment with a growth mindset, helping to create self-directed adaptive learners, leading to health care providers who can adjust their practice to tackle expected and unexpected challenges throughout their careers. Strategies to create a culture of growth mindset identified include training faculty and learners on growth mindset and developing new assessments that track a learner's growth. Recommendations for pharmacy educators include encouraging educators to assess their own growth mindset and use a variety of teaching methods and provide feedback on learner effort that encourages the process of learning rather than focusing on individual attributes, traits, and results. SUMMARY: Growth mindset intersects with accreditation standards for both professional degree programs and providers of continuing pharmacy education. Continuing professional development process is one way to encourage faculty, staff, and students to develop a growth mindset. While a growth mindset can have many positive impacts on pharmacy accreditation, it is essential to recognize that achieving and maintaining accreditation is a multifaceted process involving numerous factors. A growth mindset can positively influence pharmacy education accreditation by fostering a culture of continuous improvement, innovation, resilience, student-centeredness, data-driven decision-making, collaboration, and effective leadership.

Evaluating Curriculum Differences in US PharmD Programs: A Peer Evaluation.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the differences in curriculum structure and content and observe commonalities across various Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) programs in the United States. METHODS: This research involves the collection of course content and credit hour data from the curricula and course descriptions, course catalogs, and student handbooks of all the PharmD programs available on their websites and categorization based on the content areas outlined in the Accreditation Council of Pharmacy Education. The core courses, elective offerings, and experiential education (eg, Introductory and Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experience) were evaluated using Excel® for credit hours, integration, non-integration, program duration (3-year vs 4-year), and online offerings. RESULTS: Of 142 accredited schools/colleges, 135 were included in the study, which met the inclusion criteria. In total, 85 of these schools have an integrated curriculum, 19 have a 3-year curriculum, and 15 offer a distance learning pathway for a PharmD degree. Fourteen of the 37 required content areas from the Accreditation Council of Pharmacy Education Appendix 1 were identified, with more than 50% of schools listing no credit hours allocated. Only 9 areas had 90% or more of pharmacy schools allocating credit hours. On average, biomedical, pharmaceutical, social/administrative/behavioral, clinical sciences, experiential education, and electives allocate 10.6, 25.3, 17.1, 40.5, 45.5, and 7.0 credit hours, respectively. CONCLUSION: Each school's curriculum has a significant variation in credit hours, and there is an opportunity to simplify the curricular structure and content by reducing redundancy and increasing flexibility based on health care needs.

A Systematic Review of Immunization Administration Training for African Pharmacists and Student Pharmacists.

OBJECTIVES: Recent calls to action have encouraged African pharmacists to become trained to administer immunizations with the goals of developing a strong pharmacy vaccination workforce, addressing a shortage of vaccinators, and improving vaccination access. However limited availability of training programs for pharmacists and student pharmacists to learn to administer immunizations may restrict the ability of African pharmacists and student pharmacists to meet these goals. This work sought to systematically identify literature published regarding immunization administration training for pharmacists and student pharmacists in Africa. FINDINGS: In total, 940 articles were identified from 6 databases and gray literature. After eligibility criteria were applied, a total of 8 studies from 7 African countries were included, representing Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. Three studies described immunization administration training programs for pharmacists and 1 described training for student pharmacists. SUMMARY: This literature review identified that there are limited publications describing immunization training for pharmacists and student pharmacists in Africa. Training pharmacists to immunize could make a meaningful impact in increasing immunization access and reducing the spread of vaccine-preventable diseases in Africa. Expansion of available immunization administration training is needed for African pharmacists and student pharmacists if calls to action are to be met.

A Cycle of Reinforcing Challenges and Ideas for Action in Experiential Settings.

Evidence suggests that both pharmacy students and preceptors are struggling in the experiential setting. Underlying this phenomenon is a potential interconnected and cyclic set of behaviors being reinforced between students and preceptors. These behaviors can contribute to or are the result of higher levels of burnout and a decrease in the development of student clinical skills and subsequent performance on rotation. In this review, the authors investigate various challenges commonly encountered in the experiential environment. These challenges can range from an observed decrease in student engagement, motivation, and critical thinking skills to an increase in preceptor burnout and culture shifts in the clinical practice environments. These factors all ultimately impact patient care and overall student performance. For each challenge identified, strategies will be presented that can be implemented by students, preceptors, and pharmacy programs to break the cyclic pattern identified.

Peer mentoring in pharmacy programs: Recommendations for implementation based on a review of available literature.

BACKGROUND: Stress experienced by pharmacy students is on the rise and is negatively impacting student success. Pharmacy accreditation standards encourage schools to promote student success and well-being. Peer to peer student support is a largely under-investigated strategy to address this. The objective of this manuscript is to conduct a literature review on the development of peer mentoring programs for pharmacy students and describe best practices for successful implementation into pharmacy programs. METHODS: This literature review identified studies using major databases, including PubMed, Embase, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, and Education Resources Information Center. Search terms included [(peer mentor*) AND pharmacy]. Any study that involved peer assessment, peer tutoring, or peer learning within a course, faculty mentors only, non-pharmacy students, and/or did not implement a mentor-mentee relationship, was excluded. RESULTS: Three studies met the criteria for inclusion. Mentorship programs varied with regard to duration, mentor recruitment, participant incentives, and overall structure. Various methods of analyses were employed. Despite major differences between the included studies, three themes were identified regarding development of peer mentoring programs: participation, support, and pairing. Active engagement led to higher perceived benefit and both mentors and mentees found the programs beneficial, agreed to recommend the programs to others, and provided positive feedback. IMPLICATIONS: Successful mentoring programs should aim to incorporate the following characteristics to some degree: mandatory participation by mentor and mentee as well as support for mentors with training and faculty oversight. Peer mentoring programs have a positive impact on participants. More studies are needed to assess the effects of peer mentoring in pharmacy programs. This is the first known review of peer mentoring within pharmacy programs and identifies a gap in knowledge in this area. There is a paucity of data surrounding peer mentoring in pharmacy and its potential value as a tool to improve student well-being.

Use of a clinical reasoning scaffolding document improves student performance.

OBJECTIVE: Clinical reasoning is an essential skill set for practicing pharmacists to possess. Given its complex nature, optimal pedagogies for teaching clinical reasoning are largely unknown. The use of scaffolding to expand a student's zone of proximal development and improve clinical reasoning performance was assessed in this study. METHODS: This prospective, observational cohort study of second professional year (P2) students compared performance of those who were exposed to a clinical reasoning scaffolding tool (CRST) to historic control P2 students (No CRST) on FARMR notes in alignment with the Pharmacists' Patient Care Process. Student performance was assessed using an entrustment-like scale for each of 5 sections (Findings, Assessment and goals, Recommendations, Monitoring, and Rationale) of the FARMR to link classroom and experiential education settings. RESULTS: In total, 141 CRST students from 28 groups were compared to 77 No CRST students from 13 groups. CRST students performed significantly higher in Assessment and goals of therapy, Recommendations, Monitoring, Rationale sections but no difference in Findings. CONCLUSIONS: Scaffolding has been utilized successfully in other health professions education. This study provides evidence of it successfully improving student pharmacist clinical reasoning skills, an essential ability for successful pharmacy practitioners.

Evaluation of Student Academic Performance After Curricular Content Reduction.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of curricular content reduction in an integrated course sequence spanning 3 years of a Doctor of Pharmacy curriculum on student examination scores and course grades. METHODS: This 2-year, prepost study compared student overall average and final examination scores and overall course grades after the transition from a 5-day to a 4-day week of an integrated learning experience (ILE) course sequence. In addition, an anonymous, optional 23-item survey was distributed to first to third year pharmacy students asking about the 4-day week change, how they utilized the non-ILE day, and additional demographic and social characteristics to identify factors influencing success on examination and course performance during the 4-day week. RESULTS: There were 533 students included in the overall analysis, with no significant differences in overall course grades in the 5-day vs 4-day week. Examination scores were not significantly different after the transition, except in 2 of 12 courses where scores were higher and final examination scores were not significantly different, except for higher final examination scores in 1 course during the 5-day week. Significant positive influencers of top quartile of examination performance included prepharmacy grade point average ≥ 3.5, age 25 to 29 years, and prepharmacy coursework at the parent institution, whereas using the non-ILE day primarily to sleep negatively influenced outcomes. CONCLUSION: Curricular density is a prevalent problem and addressing it at a program level is essential. Reducing curricular content and hours at our institution did not adversely impact student examination and course performance and slight improvement was noted in some areas.

Debate as an Active Learning Pedagogy Among Pharmacy Students in a Public Health Course.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of a debate activity on pharmacy students' knowledge of public health and health policy topics. METHODS: Forty-six second-year pharmacy students in a required public health and health policy course debated universal healthcare coverage for Americans using the Lincoln-Douglas oral debate format. Demographic data, including age and gender, were collected. Knowledge (before/after) of universal healthcare principles was assessed via a rubric-embedded quiz related to the activity objectives. The students' perceptions of the educational value of the debate were assessed before and after the debate using a 12-item Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree through 5 = strongly agree) and open-ended questions. Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis were conducted using SPSS v25 and Atlas.ti version 9, respectively. Wilcoxon t tests were conducted to compare preknowledge and postknowledge scores. An α level of 0.05 was utilized. RESULTS: Forty-two students completed the perceptions survey, yielding a 96 % response rate. The mean age was 24 ± 4 years and primarily female (63 %). Most students had no previous experience with debates (80.4 %) and there was a statistically significant improvement in knowledge after the debate from 66.5 % ± 13.4 % to 80.7 % ± 12 % , for a total increase of 14.2 %. Open responses indicated that students believed their overall knowledge about other healthcare systems increased and they developed literature review and communications skills. CONCLUSION: The debate activity enhanced the students' knowledge and assessment of controversial public health issues that will be useful during their pharmacy education and careers. The students perceived that the debates enriched their learning.

Old Habits Die Hard: Regression in Learning and Study Strategies Inventory Scores in PharmD Students.

OBJECTIVE: Prior studies have demonstrated that "learning to learn" (L2L) courses can lead to significant improvements in students' Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI) scores immediately following the course. This study aimed to analyze whether improvements in LASSI scores are sustained 1 year following an L2L elective course. METHODS: First-year pharmacy students in the classes of 2024 and 2025 completed the LASSI at the start of the fall semester and again immediately following an L2L course. One year later, during the second professional year, students completed the LASSI a third time. Repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance was used to analyze within-participant differences in LASSI scores across each of the 10 LASSI scales. Univariate analysis of variance with Bonferroni correction was used for pairwise comparison. RESULTS: A total of 119 students completed all 3 LASSI assessments. LASSI scores improved in all 10 scales following completion of the L2L course. However, 1 year after the completion of the course, there was a statistically significant regression in all 10 scale scores (Wilks' Λ [20,98] = 8.7). Among the 10 scales, scores for the Attitude and Concentration scales were statistically significantly lower during the second professional year relative to baseline at the start of the first professional year. Selecting Main Ideas was the only scale with a higher score during the second professional year relative to baseline. CONCLUSION: Despite marked improvements in LASSI scores following the implementation of a "learning to learn" course for first-year pharmacy students, the improvements were not sustained after 1 year.

Evaluating the Strengths and Barriers of Competency-Based Education in the Health Professions.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to define competency-based education (CBE) for pharmacy education and describe how strengths and barriers of CBE can support or hinder implementation. FINDINGS: Sixty-five studies were included from a variety of health professions in order to define competency based pharmacy education (CBPE) and identify barriers and benefits from the learner, faculty, institution, and society perspectives. From the 7 identified thematic categories, a CBPE definition was developed: "Competency-based pharmacy education is an outcomes-based curricular model of an organized framework of competencies (knowledge, skills, attitudes) for pharmacists to meet health care and societal needs. This learner-centered curricular model aligns authentic teaching and learning strategies and assessment (emphasizing workplace assessment and quality feedback) while deemphasizing time." SUMMARY: This article provides a definition of CBE for its application within pharmacy education. The strengths and barriers for CBE were elucidated from other health professions' education literature. Identified implementation strengths and barriers aid in the discussions on what will support or hinder the implementation of CBE in pharmacy education.