Comprehensive nutrition guidelines and management strategies for enteropathy in children.

Protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) describes a syndrome of excessive protein loss into the gastrointestinal tract, which may be due to a wide variety of etiologies. For children in whom the protein loss is associated with lymphangiectasia, medical nutrition therapy focused on restricting enteral long-chain triglycerides and thus intestinal chyle production is an integral component of treatment. This approach is based on the principle that reducing intestinal chyle production will concurrently decrease enteric protein losses of lymphatic origin. In patients with ongoing active PLE or those who are on a fat-restricted diet, particularly in infants and young children, supplemental calories may be provided with medium-chain triglycerides (MCT). MCT are absorbed directly into the bloodstream, bypassing intestinal lymphatics and not contributing to intestinal chyle production. Patients with active PLE or who are on dietary fat restriction should be monitored for associated micronutrient deficiencies. In this paper, we seek to formally present recommended nutrition interventions, principles of dietary education and patient counseling, and monitoring parameters in pediatric populations with PLE based on our experience in a busy clinical referral practice focused on this population.

Neonatal perspective on central lymphatic disorders.

Lymphatic disorders presenting in the first year of life are difficult to identify and manage given the broad range of underlying etiologies. Neonatal lymphatic disease arising from congenital or acquired conditions results in the abnormal accumulation of lymph fluid in the pleura (chylothorax), peritoneum (chylous ascites) and skin (edema/anasarca). There is also increasing recognition of lymphatic losses through the intestine resulting in protein-losing enteropathy (PLE). While the incidence of lymphatic disorders in neonates is unclear, advances in genetic testing and lymphatic imaging are improving our understanding of the underlying pathophysiology. Despite these advancements, medical management of neonatal lymphatic disorders remains challenging and variable among clinicians.

The long-term clinical course of protein-losing enteropathy combined with iron deficiency anemia in Korean toddlers: Possible association with cow's milk protein.

BACKGROUND: Protein-losing enteropathy (PLE), a rare condition with excessive gastrointestinal protein loss, presents with hypoalbuminemia, edema, or ascites. Several cases of PLE combined with severe iron deficiency anemia (IDA) have been reported in infants and toddlers that were considered to result from excessive cow's milk consumption, although the mechanism has not been clearly established. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the clinical, laboratory, endoscopic, and radiologic characteristics of patients diagnosed and treated for PLE with IDA between 2015 and 2021. Long-term outcomes were analyzed according to dietary intervention during the follow-up period. RESULTS: A total of 10 patients aged 7.0-26.7 months were enrolled in the study and the median follow-up duration of them was 9.4 months (range, 1.3-18.0). Six of them were fed powdered formula, while two were fed whole cow's milk, and their median daily intake was 700 mL (range, 300-900). The times to normalization of hemoglobin, albumin, and eosinophil count were shorter in patients with dietary elimination of cow's milk protein immediately after diagnosis compared to those with reduced intake or no dietary change. CONCLUSION: Early complete elimination of cow's milk protein should be considered, especially if the laboratory parameters are not normalized with adequate iron supplementation even though the clinical symptoms show improvement. We would like to draw attention to the possibility of the cow's milk protein in the pathogenesis of the condition through the non-IgE-mediated immune reactions.

[Hybrid treatment of protein-losing enteropathy in a patient with univentricular circulation].

Protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) is a severe Fontan complication. This is a case report of the first hybrid treatment of PLE in Denmark of an 11-year-old Fontan patient with severe symptoms (diarrhoea, fatigue and swelling) and low albumin level. Diagnostics included intranodal and intrahepatic dynamic contrast magnetic resonance lymphangiography. The hybrid intervention consisted of selective lymphatic duct embolisation and innominate vein turn-down to treat PLE. The interventions went well, and two months after discharge the patient was relieved from PLE symptoms, the albumin level was normalised, and the patient felt more energetic.

Transcatheter Thoracic Duct Decompression for Multicompartment Lymphatic Failure After Fontan Palliation.

BACKGROUND: Lymphatic embolization therapy has proven effective for Fontan failure from plastic bronchitis or protein-losing enteropathy but not when multiple lymphatic compartments are involved; furthermore, embolization does not alter the underlying pathophysiology of lymphatic dysfunction. A technique for transcatheter thoracic duct decompression (TDD), rerouting the thoracic duct to the pulmonary venous atrium to treat multicompartment lymphatic failure is described and early outcomes presented. METHODS: Initially covered stents were used to channel the innominate vein flow inside of the cavopulmonary pathway into the pulmonary venous atrium. A modified approach was developed where covered stents redirected innominate vein directly to the left atrium via an extravascular course. Baseline and follow-up data on all patients undergoing TDD were reviewed. RESULTS: Twelve patients underwent TDD between March 2018 and February 2021 at a median age of 12 (range: 2-22) years. Lymphatic failure occurred in median of 3 compartments per patient (protein-losing enteropathy, ascites, pleural effusions, plastic bronchitis); 10 patients had lymphatic embolizations before TDD. TDD method was intra-Fontan tunnel in 4, direct approach in 7, and other in 1. There were no major procedural complications; 6 patients underwent subsequent procedures, most commonly to treat endoleaks. Lymphatic failure resolved in 6 patients, improved in 2, and was unchanged in 4 at 6 (range: 1-20) months follow-up. One patient died after TDD from Fontan failure. CONCLUSIONS: TDD is a promising new treatment for the failing Fontan physiology from multicompartment lymphatic failure. Additional work is needed to refine the technique and define optimal candidates.

Plastic Bronchitis and Protein-Losing Enteropathy in the Fontan Patient: Evolving Understanding and Emerging Therapies.

Plastic bronchitis (PB) and protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) are rare but potentially devastating complications of the Fontan circulation. PB occurs in ∼4% of Fontan patients, typically presents within 2 to 3 years of Fontan completion with chronic cough, wheezing, fever, or acute asphyxiation, and is characterised by proteinaceous airway casts that are expectorated or found on bronchoscopy. PLE develops in 4% to 13% of patients, usually within 5 to 10 years post Fontan, and manifests with edema, ascites, hypoalbuminemia, lymphopenia, hypogammaglobulinemia, and elevated fecal alpha-1 antitrypsin 1. These disorders have similar pathophysiology involving disruption of the lymphatic system resulting from elevated central venous pressure combined with elevated lymphatic production and inflammation, resulting in lymphatic drainage into low-pressure circuits such as the airways (PB) and duodenum (PLE). Our understanding of these disorders has greatly improved over the past decade as a result of advances in imaging of the lymphatic system through magnetic resonance lymphangiography and early success with lymphatic interventions including lymphatic embolisation, thoracic duct embolisation, and percutaneous thoracic duct decompression. Both PB and PLE require a multidisciplinary approach that addresses and optimises residual hemodynamic lesions through catheter-based intervention, lowers central venous pressure through medical therapy, minimises symptoms, and targets abnormal lymphatic perfusion when symptoms persist. This review summarises the pathophysiology of these disorders and the current evidence base regarding management, proposes treatment algorithms, and identifies future research opportunities. Key considerations regarding the development of a lymphatic intervention program are also highlighted.

Current Treatment Options for the Failing Fontan Circulation.

The Fontan operation was introduced in 1968. For congenital malformations, where biventricular repair is unsuitable, the Fontan procedure has provided a long-term palliation strategy with improved outcomes compared to the initially developed procedures. Despite these improvements, several complications merely due to a failing Fontan circulation, including myocardial dysfunction, arrhythmias, increased pulmonary vascular resistance, protein-losing enteropathy, hepatic dysfunction, plastic bronchitis, and thrombo-embolism, may occur, thereby limiting the life-expectancy in this patient cohort. This review provides an overview of the most common complications of Fontan circulation and the currently available treatment options.

ANCA-associated vasculitis with protein-losing enteropathy is characterized by hypocomplementemia.

Protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) has been reported to be associated with various systemic autoimmune diseases. However, reports regarding PLE in ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV) patients are limited. We herein aimed to describe the clinical characteristics of AAV with PLE. We conducted a retrospective chart review of patients who were diagnosed with AAV and who began treatment at the University of Tokyo Hospital between June 2003 and June 2020. Among 68 AAV patients, there were four patients (5.9%) with PLE, consisting of two patients with MPA, one patient with GPA, and one patient with EGPA. Clinical courses were described, and their data were compared with AAV patients without PLE. Demographic characteristics, disease activity, and the pattern of organ involvement were similar between patients with PLE and without PLE. Patients with PLE had hypocomplementemia more frequently than the patients without PLE (CH50 75.0% vs 1.8%, p < 0.001, C3 50.0% vs 1.8%, p = 0.01, C4 75.0% vs 3.5%, p = 0.001). Although hypoalbuminemia improved with immunosuppressive therapy for AAV, the improvement in hypoalbuminemia was slow in most cases. We also performed a systematic review on PLE associated with vasculitis. Thirteen reports were included, and Henoch-Schonlein Purpura patients with PLE also tended to have hypocomplementemia. In conclusion, PLE is a rare complication of AAV and complement system may associate with the mechanism of PLE.

A very rare cause of protein losing enteropathy: Gaucher disease.

BACKGROUND: Mesenteric lymphadenopathy is a rare manifestation of Gaucher disease (GD) in children and can be accompanied by protein losing enteropathy (PLE). PLE is a difficult-to-treat complication of GD. To date, only a few pediatric GD cases with PLE and massive mesenteric lymphadenopathies have been reported. CASE: Here, we report a girl with chronic neuronopathic GD, whose disease course was complicated by massive mesenteric lymphadenopathies with resultant protein losing enteropathy despite a regular and appropriate enzyme replacement therapy of 60 IU/kg/biweekly until the development of mesenteric lymphadenopathies and 120 IU/kg/biweekly thereafter. CONCLUSIONS: PLE is a devastating and life threatening complication of GD developing despite long term use of high dose ERT. Clinicians should be alert for this complication particularly in GD patients presenting with progressive abdominal distension, edema, ascites and diarrhea or in patients who have already developed mesenteric lymphadenopathies. Timely diagnosis may allow early intervention with previously suggested surgical or medical treatment options. Although there is no specific and effective treatment, surgical and aggressive medical interventions in addition to ERT were reported to relieve diarrhea and halt progression of mesenteric lymphadenopathies.

The effect of assisted enteral feeding on treatment outcome in dogs with inflammatory protein-losing enteropathy.

BACKGROUND: The effect of assisted enteral feeding on treatment outcome in dogs with protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) is unknown. OBJECTIVES: To determine if dogs with inflammatory PLE that had an enteral feeding tube placed had better outcome vs dogs with inflammatory PLE without a feeding tube. ANIMALS: Fifty-seven dogs with inflammatory PLE. METHODS: A retrospective study at a UK referral hospital identified dogs with inflammatory PLE using a standard diagnostic criterion. Positive outcome was defined as survival greater than 6 months or death unrelated to PLE and negative outcome as death related to PLE within 6 months of diagnosis. Several variables were assessed to identify factors for positive outcome using logistic regression. RESULTS: Thirty-five (61%) and 22 (39%) dogs had a positive and negative outcome at 6 months, respectively. Of the 21 dogs that had a feeding tube placed within 5 days of gastrointestinal biopsy, 16 (76%) had a positive outcome and 5 (24%) had a negative outcome. Dogs treated with dietary treatment alone (P = .002) and dogs with an enteral feeding tube (P = .006) were significantly associated with a positive outcome. When stratified by treatment, assisted enteral feeding was significantly associated with a positive outcome in dogs treated with concurrent immunosuppressive treatment (P = .006), but there was insufficient data to evaluate dogs treated with dietary treatment alone. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Assisted enteral feeding in dogs with inflammatory PLE could be associated with improved treatment outcome, especially in those receiving immunosuppressive treatment, and should be considered in the treatment plan of these dogs.

Successful Treatment of Protein-Losing Enteropathy After Superior Mesenteric Artery Occlusion without Surgery.

BACKGROUND Protein-losing enteropathy as a complication of superior mesenteric artery occlusion is extremely rare and severe, and sometimes requires intestinal resection. However, the ideal treatment strategy has not yet been determined. CASE REPORT A 77-year-old man with underlying hypertension and diabetes was admitted to the Emergency Department with acute abdominal pain after eating. Contrast-enhanced computed tomography revealed complete occlusion of the superior mesenteric artery with thrombosis, and superior mesenteric artery occlusion was diagnosed. It was successfully treated with interventional therapy, followed by continuous intra-arterial prostaglandin E1 infusion and continuous intravenous heparin infusion. However, the patient developed hypoproteinemia and diarrhea about 10 days after the interventional therapy. Colonoscopy and X-ray studies did not reveal any abnormal findings; however, technetium-99m-labeled human serum albumin scintigraphy indicated protein-losing enteropathy. With total parenteral nutrition and protein-rich oral nutrition, with protein intake at twice the amount in a standard diet, serum albumin improved from 15 g/L to 32 g/L after treatment. Additionally, we administered diuretics to avoiding edema related to the hypoproteinemia. The patient recovered from the hypoproteinemia and diarrhea without complications. CONCLUSIONS Protein-losing enteropathy is an extremely rare but critical complication of superior mesenteric artery occlusion. Treating the underlying pathology is the mainstay of protein-losing enteropathy and dietary modifications also play a critical role. Our patient was successfully treated with strict nutritional therapy, combined oral protein-rich nutrition and total parenteral nutrition, which avoided surgery.

Therapeutic Lymphatic Embolization in Pediatric Primary Intestinal Lymphangiectasia.

Primary intestinal lymphangiectasia (IL) can cause leakage of lymphatic fluids into the gastrointestinal tract, eventually leading to protein-losing enteropathy. A 15-year-old male patient, whose disease began at the age of 8 years, recently felt worsening general weakness. After diagnosing abnormal lymphatic lesions in the duodenum through endoscopy with biopsy and contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance lymphangiography, glue embolization of the leaking duodenal lymphatic channel was successfully performed. This procedure is typically reserved for adult patients, although as shown in this case, it can be properly performed in children. His serum albumin level was initially 1.5 g/dL, but elevated to 5.0 g/dL after two sessions of lymphatic embolization. Accordingly, we suggest that embolization could potentially be considered a first-line treatment for focal lesions of primary intestinal IL.

Novel Case Report: A Previously Reported, but Pathophysiologically Unexplained, Association Between Collagenous Colitis and Protein-Losing Enteropathy May Be Explained by an Undetected Link with Collagenous Duodenitis.

Collagenous colitis (CC) is associated with non-bloody, watery diarrhea, which is pathophysiologically reasonable because normal colonic absorption (or excretion) of water and electrolytes can be blocked by the abnormally thick collagen layer in CC. However, CC has also been associated with six previous cases of protein-losing enteropathy (PLE), with no pathophysiologic explanation. The colon does not normally absorb (or excrete) amino acids/proteins, which is primarily the function of the small bowel. Collagenous duodenitis (CD) has not been associated with PLE. This work reports a novel case of CD (and CC) associated with PLE; a pathophysiologically reasonable mechanism for CD causing PLE (by the thick collagen layer of CD blocking normal intestinal amino acid absorption); and a novel association of PLE with severe COVID-19 infection (attributed to relative immunosuppression from hypoproteinemia, hypoalbuminemia, hypogammaglobulinemia, and malnutrition from PLE).

Perioperative and long-term management of Fontan patients.

A Fontan circulation requires a series of three-staged operations aimed to palliate patients with single-ventricle CHD. Currently, the most frequent technique is the extracardiac total cavopulmonary connection, an external conduit connecting the IVC and right pulmonary artery, bypassing the right side of the heart. Fontan candidates must meet strict criteria; they are assessed utilising both cardiac catheterisation and cardiac magnetic resonance. Postoperatively, treatment protocols prioritise antibiotic prophylaxis, diuretics, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, anticoagulation, and oxygen therapy with fluid restriction and a low-fat diet. These measures aim to reduce length of stay in the ICU and hospital by preventing acute complications such as infection, venous thromboembolism, low cardiac output, pleural effusion, and acute kidney injury. Late complications of a Fontan procedure include circulation failure, protein-losing enteropathy, plastic bronchitis, and Fontan-associated liver disease. The definitive management is cardiac transplantation, with promising innovations in selective embolisation of lymphatic vessels and Fontan-specific ventricular assist devices. Further research assessing current protocols in the perioperative management of Fontan patients would be beneficial for standardising current practice and improving outcomes.

Sjögren syndrome associated with protein-losing enteropathy: case-based review.

The association between Sjögren's syndrome (SS) and protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) was scarcly reported. To analyze the clinical, therapeutic, and outcome characteristics of patients with SS and PLE and also to delineate the potential mechanisms and pathways connecting the gut to SS targeted organ's pathology. Systematic screening was conducted using PubMed/MEDLINE, LILACS, SciELO, Web of Science, and Cochrane, dating 1980 to 2020. SS and PLE were the key words. Eighteen patients with SS and PLE were summarized. The patient's ages ranged between 20 and 88 years, and only 4 were males. Primary SS was observed in most cases. Anti-Ro was detected in 100% of the cases while anti-La was reported in 64% of them. The clinical manifestations were protein loss, edema of the lower limbs, pleural effusion, ascites, facial edema, anasarca, diarrhea, and weight loss. Among these clinical manifestations, edema of the lower limbs was the most severe. Albumin concentration was 0.9-3.4 g/dL which increased to 2.8-4.3 g/dL after treatment. Small bowel biopsy was performed in all of the cases. Concerning the therapy, all the patients received systemic glucocorticoids. All of them improved. The period of onset of improvement ranged from 3 weeks to 36 months (an average of 3 months). The early diagnosis and appropriate therapy of PLE in patients with anti-Ro positive SS and who present edema, anasarca, or hypoalbuminemia is vital for a beneficial outcome. An excellent clinical improvement in all the cases was observed when treated early enough by cortico-therapy, thus preventing patient's deterioration, complications, and reducing morbidity and potential mortality.

Overlap of lymphatic dysplasia in Fontan-associated protein-losing enteropathy and Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT lymphoma): implications for management of protein-losing enteropathy.

Lymphatic vessel dysplasia is associated with Fontan-associated protein-losing enteropathy. Extra nodal non-Hodgkin lymphomas including mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT lymphoma) are associated with lymphatic vessel dysplasia. Here, we describe the case of a 7-year-old with Fontan-associated protein-losing enteropathy who developed MALT lymphoma with a clinical course indicative of interaction between these pathologies and improvement in protein-losing enteropathy after MALT lymphoma treatment. This case suggests a pathophysiologic overlap which has implications for the management of Fontan-associated protein-losing enteropathy.

Systemic lupus erythematosus with repeated protein-losing enteropathy resulting from different pathological conditions: a case report.

Protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) is a rare organ disorder that can develop as a complication of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Here, we report the case of a 59-year-old woman with SLE who experienced recurrent PLE resulting from different pathological conditions. The patient was diagnosed with SLE in X-14. In X-12, she was hospitalised due to persistent diarrhoea, generalised oedema, abdominal distension, dyspnoea on exertion, and hypoalbuminemia. A thrombus was noted in the superior mesenteric vein extending from the main trunk of the portal vein. She was diagnosed with PLE resulting from portal vein thrombosis caused by SLE, and her condition improved with anticoagulant therapy. In X-1, she developed diarrhoea and hypoalbuminemia again and was diagnosed with PLE associated with SLE. The symptoms promptly ameliorated with immunosuppressive therapy. Because PLE associated with SLE can be caused by various pathological conditions, appropriate therapeutic intervention based on the underlying condition is crucial.