Quantification of membrane geometry and protein sorting on cell membrane protrusions using fluorescence microscopy.

Plasma membranes are flexible and can exhibit numerous shapes below the optical diffraction limit. The shape of cell periphery can either induce or be a product of local protein density changes, encoding numerous cellular functions. However, quantifying membrane curvature and the ensuing sorting of proteins in live cells remains technically demanding. Here, we demonstrate the use of simple widefield fluorescence microscopy to study the geometrical properties (i.e., radius, length, and number) of thin membrane protrusions. Importantly, the quantification of protrusion radius establishes a platform for studying the curvature preferences of membrane proteins.

Curved crease origami and topological singularities enable hyperextensibility of L. olor.

Fundamental limits of cellular deformations, such as hyperextension of a living cell, remain poorly understood. Here, we describe how the single-celled protist Lacrymaria olor, a 40-micrometer cell, is capable of reversibly and repeatably extending its necklike protrusion up to 1200 micrometers in 30 seconds. We discovered a layered cortical cytoskeleton and membrane architecture that enables hyperextensions through the folding and unfolding of cellular-scale origami. Physical models of this curved crease origami display topological singularities, including traveling developable cones and cytoskeletal twisted domain walls, which provide geometric control of hyperextension. Our work unravels how cell geometry encodes behavior in single cells and provides inspiration for geometric control in microrobotics and deployable architectures.

Induced Formation of Plasma Membrane Protrusions with Porous Materials as Instructive Surfaces.

The plasma membrane is a vital component in cellular processes, and its structure has a significant impact on cellular behavior. The physical characteristics of the extracellular environment, along with the presence of surface pores, can influence the formation of membrane protrusions. Nanoporous surfaces have demonstrated their capacity to induce membrane protrusions in both adherent and non-adherent cells. This chapter presents a methodology that utilizes a nanoporous substrate with nanotopographical constraints to effectively stimulate the formation of membrane protrusions in cells.

Sporulation Strategies and Potential Role of the Exosporium in Survival and Persistence of Clostridium botulinum.

Clostridium botulinum produces the botulinum neurotoxin that causes botulism, a rare but potentially lethal paralysis. Endospores play an important role in the survival, transmission, and pathogenesis of C. botulinum. C. botulinum strains are very diverse, both genetically and ecologically. Group I strains are terrestrial, mesophilic, and produce highly heat-resistant spores, while Group II strains can be terrestrial (type B) or aquatic (type E) and are generally psychrotrophic and produce spores of moderate heat resistance. Group III strains are either terrestrial or aquatic, mesophilic or slightly thermophilic, and the heat resistance properties of their spores are poorly characterized. Here, we analyzed the sporulation dynamics in population, spore morphology, and other spore properties of 10 C. botulinum strains belonging to Groups I-III. We propose two distinct sporulation strategies used by C. botulinum Groups I-III strains, report their spore properties, and suggest a putative role for the exosporium in conferring high heat resistance. Strains within each physiological group produced spores with similar characteristics, likely reflecting adaptation to respective environmental habitats. Our work provides new information on the spores and on the population and single-cell level strategies in the sporulation of C. botulinum.

Profiling cellular diversity in sponges informs animal cell type and nervous system evolution.

The evolutionary origin of metazoan cell types such as neurons and muscles is not known. Using whole-body single-cell RNA sequencing in a sponge, an animal without nervous system and musculature, we identified 18 distinct cell types. These include nitric oxide­sensitive contractile pinacocytes, amoeboid phagocytes, and secretory neuroid cells that reside in close contact with digestive choanocytes that express scaffolding and receptor proteins. Visualizing neuroid cells by correlative x-ray and electron microscopy revealed secretory vesicles and cellular projections enwrapping choanocyte microvilli and cilia. Our data show a communication system that is organized around sponge digestive chambers, using conserved modules that became incorporated into the pre- and postsynapse in the nervous systems of other animals.

Dynamics of AQP4 upon exposure to seropositive patient serum before and after Rituximab therapy in Neuromyelitis Optica: A cell-based study.

Neuromyelitis Optica (NMO) is an autoimmune inflammatory disease that affects the optic nerves and spinal cord. The autoantibody is generated against the abundant water channel protein of the brain, Aquaporin 4 (AQP4). Of the two isoforms of AQP4, the shorter one (M23) often exists as a supramolecular assembly known as an orthogonal array of particles (OAPs). There have been debates about the fate of these AQP4 clusters upon binding to the antibody, the exact mechanism of its turnover, and the proteins associated with the process. Recently several clinical cases of NMO were reported delineating the effect of Rituximab (RTX) therapy. Extending these reports at the cell signaling level, we developed a glioma based cellular model that mimicked antibody binding and helped us track the subsequent events including a variation of AQP4 levels, alterations in cellular morphology, and the changes in downstream signaling cascades. Our results revealed the extent of perturbations in the signaling pathways related to stress involving ERK, JNK, and AKT1 together with markers for cell death. We could also decipher the possible routes of degradation of AQP4, post-exposure to antibody. We further investigated the effect of autoantibody on AQP4 transcriptional level and involvement of FOXO3a and miRNA-145 in the regulation of transcription. This study highlights the differential outcome at the cellular level when treated with the serum of the same patient pre and post RTX therapy and for the first time mechanistically describes the effect of RTX.

Visualizing bleb mass dynamics in single cells using quantitative phase microscopy.

Understanding biological responses to directed energy (DE) is critical to ensure the safety of personnel within the Department of Defense. At the Air Force Research Laboratory, we have developed or adapted advanced optical imaging systems that quantify biophysical responses to DE. One notable cellular response to DE exposure is the formation of blebs, or semi-spherical protrusions of the plasma membrane in living cells. In this work, we demonstrate the capacity of quantitative phase imaging (QPI) to both visualize and quantify the formation of membrane blebs following DE exposure. QPI is an interferometric imaging tool that uses optical path length as a label-free contrast mechanism and is sensitive to the non-aqueous mass density, or dry mass, of living cells. Blebs from both CHO-K1 and U937 cells were generated after exposure to a series of 600 ns, 21.2 kV/cm electric pulses. These blebs were visualized in real time, and their dry mass relative to the rest of the cell body was quantified as a function of time. It is our hope that this system will lead to an improved understanding of both DE-induced and apoptotic blebbing.

In situ imaging of bacterial outer membrane projections and associated protein complexes using electron cryo-tomography.

The ability to produce outer membrane projections in the form of tubular membrane extensions (MEs) and membrane vesicles (MVs) is a widespread phenomenon among diderm bacteria. Despite this, our knowledge of the ultrastructure of these extensions and their associated protein complexes remains limited. Here, we surveyed the ultrastructure and formation of MEs and MVs, and their associated protein complexes, in tens of thousands of electron cryo-tomograms of ~90 bacterial species that we have collected for various projects over the past 15 years (Jensen lab database), in addition to data generated in the Briegel lab. We identified outer MEs and MVs in 13 diderm bacterial species and classified several major ultrastructures: (1) tubes with a uniform diameter (with or without an internal scaffold), (2) tubes with irregular diameter, (3) tubes with a vesicular dilation at their tip, (4) pearling tubes, (5) connected chains of vesicles (with or without neck-like connectors), (6) budding vesicles and nanopods. We also identified several protein complexes associated with these MEs and MVs which were distributed either randomly or exclusively at the tip. These complexes include a secretin-like structure and a novel crown-shaped structure observed primarily in vesicles from lysed cells. In total, this work helps to characterize the diversity of bacterial membrane projections and lays the groundwork for future research in this field.

Cadherin puncta are interdigitated dynamic actin protrusions necessary for stable cadherin adhesion.

Cadherins harness the actin cytoskeleton to build cohesive sheets of cells using paradoxically weak bonds, but the molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. In one popular model, actin organizes cadherins into large, micrometer-sized clusters known as puncta. Myosin is thought to pull on these puncta to generate strong adhesion. Here, however, we show that cadherin puncta are actually interdigitated actin microspikes generated by actin polymerization mediated by three factors (Arp2/3, EVL, and CRMP-1). The convoluted membranes in these regions give the impression of cadherin clustering by fluorescence microscopy, but the ratio of cadherin to membrane is constant. Nevertheless, these interlocking fingers of membrane are important for adhesion because perturbing their formation disrupts cell adhesion. In contrast, blocking myosin-dependent contractility does not disrupt either the interdigitated microspikes or lateral membrane adhesion. "Puncta" are zones of strong cell-cell adhesion not due to cadherin clustering but that occur because the interdigitated microspikes expand the surface area available for adhesive bond formation and increase the asperity of the cell surface to promote friction between cells.

CXCL12-Abundant Reticular (CAR) Cells Direct Megakaryocyte Protrusions across the Bone Marrow Sinusoid Wall.

Megakaryocytes (MKs) release platelets into the lumen of bone marrow (BM) sinusoids while remaining to reside within the BM. The morphogenetic events of this complex process are still not fully understood. We combined confocal laser scanning microscopy with transmission and serial block-face scanning electron microscopy followed by 3D-reconstruction on mouse BM tissue sections. These analyses revealed that MKs in close vicinity to BM sinusoid (BMS) wall first induce the lateral retraction of CXCL12-abundant reticular (CAR) cells (CAR), followed by basal lamina (BL) degradation enabling direct MK-sinusoidal endothelial cells (SECs) interaction. Subsequently, an endothelial engulfment starts that contains a large MK protrusion. Then, MK protrusions penetrate the SEC, transmigrate into the BMS lumen and form proplatelets that are in direct contact to the SEC surface. Furthermore, such processes are induced on several sites, as observed by 3D reconstructions. Our data demonstrate that MKs in interaction with CAR-cells actively induce BMS wall alterations, including CAR-cell retraction, BL degradation, and SEC engulfment containing a large MK protrusion. This results in SEC penetration enabling the migration of MK protrusion into the BMS lumen where proplatelets that are adherent to the luminal SEC surface are formed and contribute to platelet release into the blood circulation.

AQP3 Increases Intercellular Cohesion in NSCLC A549 Cell Spheroids through Exploratory Cell Protrusions.

Tumor cell aggregation is critical for cell survival following the loss of extracellular matrix attachment and dissemination. However, the underlying mechanotransduction of clustering solitary tumor cells is poorly understood, especially in non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC). Here, we examined whether cell surface protrusions played an important role in facilitating the physical contact between floating cells detached from a substrate. We employed poly-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate-based 3D culture methods to mimic in vivo tumor cell cluster formation. The suprastructural analysis of human NSCLC A549 cell spheroids showed that finger-like protrusions clung together via the actin cytoskeleton. Time-lapse holotomography demonstrated that the finger-like protrusions of free-floating cells in 3D culture displayed exploratory coalescence. Global gene expression analysis demonstrated that the genes in the organic hydroxyl transport were particularly enriched in the A549 cell spheroids. Particularly, the knockdown of the water channel aquaporin 3 gene (AQP3) impaired multicellular aggregate formation in 3D culture through the rearrangement of the actomyosin cytoskeleton. Moreover, the cells with reduced levels of AQP3 decreased their transmigration. Overall, these data indicate that cell detachment-upregulated AQP3 contributes to cell surface protrusions through actomyosin cytoskeleton remodeling, causing the aggressive aggregation of free-floating cells dependent on the property of the substratum and collective metastasis.

SRGAP1 Controls Small Rho GTPases To Regulate Podocyte Foot Process Maintenance.

BACKGROUND: Previous research demonstrated that small Rho GTPases, modulators of the actin cytoskeleton, are drivers of podocyte foot-process effacement in glomerular diseases, such as FSGS. However, a comprehensive understanding of the regulatory networks of small Rho GTPases in podocytes is lacking. METHODS: We conducted an analysis of podocyte transcriptome and proteome datasets for Rho GTPases; mapped in vivo, podocyte-specific Rho GTPase affinity networks; and examined conditional knockout mice and murine disease models targeting Srgap1. To evaluate podocyte foot-process morphology, we used super-resolution microscopy and electron microscopy; in situ proximity ligation assays were used to determine the subcellular localization of the small GTPase-activating protein SRGAP1. We performed functional analysis of CRISPR/Cas9-generated SRGAP1 knockout podocytes in two-dimensional and three-dimensional cultures and quantitative interaction proteomics. RESULTS: We demonstrated SRGAP1 localization to podocyte foot processes in vivo and to cellular protrusions in vitro. Srgap1fl/fl*Six2Cre but not Srgap1fl/fl*hNPHS2Cre knockout mice developed an FSGS-like phenotype at adulthood. Podocyte-specific deletion of Srgap1 by hNPHS2Cre resulted in increased susceptibility to doxorubicin-induced nephropathy. Detailed analysis demonstrated significant effacement of podocyte foot processes. Furthermore, SRGAP1-knockout podocytes showed excessive protrusion formation and disinhibition of the small Rho GTPase machinery in vitro. Evaluation of a SRGAP1-dependent interactome revealed the involvement of SRGAP1 with protrusive and contractile actin networks. Analysis of glomerular biopsy specimens translated these findings toward human disease by displaying a pronounced redistribution of SRGAP1 in FSGS. CONCLUSIONS: SRGAP1, a podocyte-specific RhoGAP, controls podocyte foot-process architecture by limiting the activity of protrusive, branched actin networks. Therefore, elucidating the complex regulatory small Rho GTPase affinity network points to novel targets for potentially precise intervention in glomerular diseases.

Mutations in Drosophila crinkled/Myosin VIIA disrupt denticle morphogenesis.

Actin filament crosslinking, bundling and molecular motor proteins are necessary for the assembly of epithelial projections such as microvilli, stereocilia, hairs, and bristles. Mutations in such proteins cause defects in the shape, structure, and function of these actin - based protrusions. One protein necessary for stereocilia formation, Myosin VIIA, is an actin - based motor protein conserved throughout phylogeny. In Drosophila melanogaster, severe mutations in the MyoVIIA homolog crinkled (ck) are "semi - lethal" with only a very small percentage of flies surviving to adulthood. Such survivors show morphological defects related to actin bundling in hairs and bristles. To better understand ck/MyoVIIA's function in bundled - actin structures, we used dominant female sterile approaches to analyze the loss of maternal and zygotic (M/Z) ck/MyoVIIA in the morphogenesis of denticles, small actin - based projections on the ventral epidermis of Drosophila embryos. M/Z ck mutants displayed severe defects in denticle morphology - actin filaments initiated in the correct location, but failed to elongate and bundle to form normal projections. Using deletion mutant constructs, we demonstrated that both of the C - terminal MyTH4 and FERM domains are necessary for proper denticle formation. Furthermore, we show that ck/MyoVIIA interacts genetically with dusky - like (dyl), a member of the ZPD family of proteins that links the extracellular matrix to the plasma membrane, and when mutated also disrupts normal denticle formation. Loss of either protein alone does not alter the localization of the other; however, loss of the two proteins together dramatically enhances the defects in denticle shape observed when either protein alone was absent. Our data indicate that ck/MyoVIIA plays a key role in the formation and/or organization of actin filament bundles, which drive proper shape of cellular projections.

Actin-Membrane Release Initiates Cell Protrusions.

Despite the well-established role of actin polymerization as a driving mechanism for cell protrusion, upregulated actin polymerization alone does not initiate protrusions. Using a combination of theoretical modeling and quantitative live-cell imaging experiments, we show that local depletion of actin-membrane links is needed for protrusion initiation. Specifically, we show that the actin-membrane linker ezrin is depleted prior to protrusion onset and that perturbation of ezrin's affinity for actin modulates protrusion frequency and efficiency. We also show how actin-membrane release works in concert with actin polymerization, leading to a comprehensive model for actin-driven shape changes. Actin-membrane release plays a similar role in protrusions driven by intracellular pressure. Thus, our findings suggest that protrusion initiation might be governed by a universal regulatory mechanism, whereas the mechanism of force generation determines the shape and expansion properties of the protrusion.

Inducible intracellular membranes: molecular aspects and emerging applications.

Membrane remodeling and phospholipid biosynthesis are normally tightly regulated to maintain the shape and function of cells. Indeed, different physiological mechanisms ensure a precise coordination between de novo phospholipid biosynthesis and modulation of membrane morphology. Interestingly, the overproduction of certain membrane proteins hijack these regulation networks, leading to the formation of impressive intracellular membrane structures in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The proteins triggering an abnormal accumulation of membrane structures inside the cells (or membrane proliferation) share two major common features: (1) they promote the formation of highly curved membrane domains and (2) they lead to an enrichment in anionic, cone-shaped phospholipids (cardiolipin or phosphatidic acid) in the newly formed membranes. Taking into account the available examples of membrane proliferation upon protein overproduction, together with the latest biochemical, biophysical and structural data, we explore the relationship between protein synthesis and membrane biogenesis. We propose a mechanism for the formation of these non-physiological intracellular membranes that shares similarities with natural inner membrane structures found in α-proteobacteria, mitochondria and some viruses-infected cells, pointing towards a conserved feature through evolution. We hope that the information discussed in this review will give a better grasp of the biophysical mechanisms behind physiological and induced intracellular membrane proliferation, and inspire new applications, either for academia (high-yield membrane protein production and nanovesicle production) or industry (biofuel production and vaccine preparation).

Novel cell contact between podocyte microprojections and parietal epithelial cells analyzed by volume electron microscopy.

Podocytes are highly specialized cells with a clear cell polarity. It is known that in health and disease, microvilli protrude from the apical surface of the podocytes into the urinary space. As a basis to better understand the podocyte microprojections/microvilli, the present study analyzed their spatial localization, extension, and contact site with parietal epithelial cells (PECs). Using different electron microscopic (EM) techniques, we analyzed renal corpuscles of healthy young adult male C57BL/6 mice fixed by vascular perfusion. Serial block-face scanning EM was used to visualize entire corpuscles, focused ion beam scanning EM was performed to characterize microprojection/microvilli-rich regions at higher magnification, and transmission EM of serial sections was used to analyze the contact zone between podocyte microprojections and PECs. Numerous microprojections originating from the primary processes of podocytes were present in the urinary space in all regions of the corpuscle. They often reached the apical surface of the PEC but did not make junctional contacts. At high resolution, it was observed that the glycocalyx of both cells was in contact. Depending on the distance between podocytes and PECs, these microprojections had a stretched or coiled state. The present study shows that microprojections/microvilli of podocytes are a physiological feature of healthy mouse kidneys and are frequently in contact with the apical surface of PECs, thus spanning the urinary space. It is proposed that podocyte microprojections serve mechanosensory or communicative functions between podocytes and PECs.

Optimising adjacent membrane segmentation and parameterisation in multicellular aggregates by piecewise active contours.

In fluorescence microscopy imaging, the segmentation of adjacent cell membranes within cell aggregates, multicellular samples, tissue, organs, or whole organisms remains a challenging task. The lipid bilayer is a very thin membrane when compared to the wavelength of photons in the visual spectra. Fluorescent molecules or proteins used for labelling membranes provide a limited signal intensity, and light scattering in combination with sample dynamics during in vivo imaging lead to poor or ambivalent signal patterns that hinder precise localisation of the membrane sheets. In the proximity of cells, membranes approach and distance each other. Here, the presence of membrane protrusions such as blebs; filopodia and lamellipodia; microvilli; or membrane vesicle trafficking, lead to a plurality of signal patterns, and the accurate localisation of two adjacent membranes becomes difficult. Several computational methods for membrane segmentation have been introduced. However, few of them specifically consider the accurate detection of adjacent membranes. In this article we present ALPACA (ALgorithm for Piecewise Adjacent Contour Adjustment), a novel method based on 2D piecewise parametric active contours that allows: (i) a definition of proximity for adjacent contours, (ii) a precise detection of adjacent, nonadjacent, and overlapping contour sections, (iii) the definition of a polyline for an optimised shared contour within adjacent sections and (iv) a solution for connecting adjacent and nonadjacent sections under the constraint of preserving the inherent cell morphology. We show that ALPACA leads to a precise quantification of adjacent and nonadjacent membrane zones in regular hexagons and live image sequences of cells of the parapineal organ during zebrafish embryo development. The algorithm detects and corrects adjacent, nonadjacent, and overlapping contour sections within a selected adjacency distance d, calculates shared contour sections for neighbouring cells with minimum alterations of the contour characteristics, and presents piecewise active contour solutions, preserving the contour shape and the overall cell morphology. ALPACA quantifies adjacent contours and can improve the meshing of 3D surfaces, the determination of forces, or tracking of contours in combination with previously published algorithms. We discuss pitfalls, strengths, and limits of our approach, and present a guideline to take the best decision for varying experimental conditions for in vivo microscopy.

Coordinated changes in cell membrane and cytoplasm during maturation of apoptotic bleb.

Apoptotic cells form membrane blebs, but little is known about how the formation and dynamics of membrane blebs are regulated. The size of blebs gradually increases during the progression of apoptosis, eventually forming large extracellular vesicles called apoptotic bodies that have immune-modulating activities. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanism involved in the differentiation of blebs into apoptotic blebs by comparing the dynamics of the bleb formed during cell migration and the bleb formed during apoptosis. We revealed that the enhanced activity of ROCK1 is required for the formation of small blebs in the early phase of apoptosis, which leads to the physical disruption of nuclear membrane and the degradation of Lamin A. In the late phase of apoptosis, the loss of asymmetry in phospholipids distribution caused the enlargement of blebs, which enabled translocation of damage-associated molecular patterns to the bleb cytoplasm and maturation of functional apoptotic blebs. Thus, changes in cell membrane dynamics are closely linked to cytoplasmic changes during apoptotic bleb formation.

Ultrastructural Characteristics of DHA-Induced Pyroptosis.

Microglial cells are resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) that respond to bioactive lipids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Low micromolar concentrations of DHA typically promote anti-inflammatory functions of microglia, but higher concentrations result in a form of pro-inflammatory programmed cell death known as pyroptosis. This study used scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to investigate the morphological characteristics of pyroptosis in BV-2 microglial cells following exposure to 200 µM DHA. Vehicle-treated cells are characterized by extended processes, spine-like projections or 0.4 to 5.2 µm in length, and numerous extracellular vesicles (EVs) tethered to the surface of the plasma membrane. In contrast to vehicle-treated cells, gross abnormalities are observed after treating cells with 200 µM DHA for 4 h. These include the appearance of numerous pits or pores of varying sizes across the cell surface, structural collapse and flattening of the cell shape. Moreover, EVs and spines were lost following DHA treatment, possibly due to release from the cell surface. The membrane pores appear after DHA treatment initially measured ~ 30 nm, consistent with the previously reported gasdermin D (GSDMD) pore complexes. Complete collapse of cytoplasmic organization and loss of nuclear envelope integrity were also observed in DHA-treated cells. These processes are morphologically distinct from the changes that occur during cisplatin-induced apoptosis, such as the appearance of apoptotic bodies and tightly packed organelles, and the maintenance of EVs and nuclear envelope integrity. Cumulatively, this study provides a systematic description of the ultrastructural characteristics of DHA-induced pyroptosis, including distinguishing features that differentiate this process from apoptosis.

Distinct P2Y Receptors Mediate Extension and Retraction of Microglial Processes in Epileptic and Peritumoral Human Tissue.

Microglia exhibit multiple, phenotype-dependent motility patterns often triggered by purinergic stimuli. However, little data exist on motility of human microglia in pathological situations. Here we examine motility of microglia stained with a fluorescent lectin in tissue slices from female and male epileptic patients diagnosed with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy or cortical glioma (peritumoral cortex). Microglial shape varied from ramified to amoeboid cells predominantly in regions of high neuronal loss or closer to a tumor. Live imaging revealed unstimulated or purine-induced microglial motilities, including surveillance movements, membrane ruffling, and process extension or retraction. At different concentrations, ADP triggered opposing motilities. Low doses triggered process extension. It was suppressed by P2Y12 receptor antagonists, which also reduced process length and surveillance movements. Higher purine doses caused process retraction and membrane ruffling, which were blocked by joint application of P2Y1 and P2Y13 receptor antagonists. Purinergic effects on motility were similar for all microglia tested. Both amoeboid and ramified cells from mesial temporal lobe epilepsy or peritumoral cortex tissue expressed P2Y12 receptors. A minority of microglia expressed the adenosine A2A receptor, which has been linked with process withdrawal of rodent cells. Laser-mediated tissue damage let us test the functional significance of these effects. Moderate damage induced microglial process extension, which was blocked by P2Y12 receptor antagonists. Overall, the purine-induced motility of human microglia in epileptic tissue is similar to that of rodent microglia in that the P2Y12 receptor initiates process extension. It differs in that retraction is triggered by joint activation of P2Y1/P2Y13 receptors.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Microglial cells are brain-resident immune cells with multiple functions in healthy or diseased brains. These diverse functions are associated with distinct phenotypes, including different microglial shapes. In the rodent, purinergic signaling is associated with changes in cell shape, such as process extension toward tissue damage. However, there are little data on living human microglia, especially in diseased states. We developed a reliable technique to stain microglia from epileptic and glioma patients to examine responses to purines. Low-intensity purinergic stimuli induced process extension, as in rodents. In contrast, high-intensity stimuli triggered a process withdrawal mediated by both P2Y1 and P2Y13 receptors. P2Y1/P2Y13 receptor activation has not previously been linked to microglial morphological changes.