Chlamydomonas sp. extract meliorates the growth and physiological responses of 'Camarosa' strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch) under salinity stress.

Microalgae like Chlamydomonas are beneficial organisms employed as biological stimulants to improve plants' growth, fruit quality, and stress tolerance. In the current study, the effects of Chlamydomonas sp. foliar spraying (0, 20, and 40 ml L-1) were assayed on Camarosa strawberry plants under salinity stress (0, 40, and 80 mM NaCl). The results showed that the foliar application of Chlamydomonas extract influenced strawberry's morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics under salinity stress. Foliar treatment of Chlamydomonas extract with and without salinity stress increased the leaf number and leaf area, the leaf relative water content, and photosynthetic pigments content. Moreover, the foliar application of Chlamydomonas extract decreased lipid peroxidation and hydrogen peroxide content and, on the other hand, enhanced the antioxidant enzymes activity (superoxide dismutase, guaiacol peroxidase, and peroxidase), phenolics, flavonoids, and anthocyanins content under salinity stress. For instance, the highest total antioxidant capacity was found in the plants foliar treated with 40 ml L-1 of Chlamydomonas algae extract under 80 mM salinity stress, which increased by 102.4% compared to the controls, as well as the highest total phenolic compounds and anthocyanin's content were 30.22, and 7.2% more than the control plants, respectively. Overall, the foliar application of Chlamydomonas algae extracts, especially at a concentration of 20 ml L-1 enhanced the strawberry's growth, yield, and physiological traits under saline conditions. The results with more detailed evaluations will be advisable for the pioneer farmers and extension section.

The regulation of postharvest strawberry quality mediated by abscisic acid under elevated CO2 stress.

Elevated CO2 was a potential strategy for strawberry preservation. However, the regulatory mechanism remained unclear. In current study, transcriptome analysis showed that elevated CO2 played important roles in regulating strawberry fruit quality at the transcriptional level, and plant hormones metabolism at least partially involved in the regulatory process. Further, ABA was demonstrated to play important roles in the response to elevated CO2. Elevated CO2 inhibited the accumulation of ABA, which was 61% lower than that in control. Elevated CO2 repressed ABA synthesis by inhibiting NCED activity and the expression of FaNCED1/2, leading to the reduction of ABA accumulation as a result. Meanwhile, elevated CO2 also decreased ABA sensitivity by down-regulating FaSnRK2.4/2.6 and FaABI5 expression. The dual down-regulation of ABA signaling accounted for the regulation of fruit quality under elevated CO2 treatment. These results provide new insights into the mechanism of strawberry fruit response to elevated CO2.

Effect of CPPU on optical properties of strawberry in near-infrared range during growth.

To investigate the effect of CPPU (forchlorfenuron) on optical properties of strawberry during growth, the optical properties (absorption coefficient (µa) and reduced scattering coefficient (µs')) of strawberry treated with CPPU solutions at different concentrations (0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 mg/L) were measured in white, color turning and red stages by using a single integrating sphere system over near-infrared wavelength range of 900-1700 nm. The physicochemical properties, i.e., single fruit weight, soluble solids content, firmness and moisture content, as well as microstructure of strawberry were also investigated. The results showed that in white stage, the µa of strawberry treated with 7.5 mg/L CPPU was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower than that of untreated strawberry at absorption peak of 1411 nm. In color turning stage, the µs' of strawberry treated with 5 mg/L CPPU was significantly lower than that of treated with 2.5 mg/L at absorption peaks of 975, 1197 and 1411 nm. In red stage, the µa of strawberry treated with 2.5 mg/L CPPU was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) different from that of treated with 7.5 mg/L at 1197 nm. The study indicates that the optical properties of strawberry were affected by CPPU, and it provides useful information for identifying CPPU treated strawberry.

An alginate-based edible coating containing lactic acid bacteria extends the shelf life of fresh strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.).

Edible coatings, formulated with sodium alginate and various strains of lactic acid bacteria, were evaluated for their effectiveness in extending the shelf life and mitigating microbial risks associated with strawberries. This study specifically employed strains of Lacticaseibacillus paracasei, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, and Lacticaseibacillus plantarum as antimicrobial agents. Through physicochemical property analysis, the alginate-based antimicrobial coating proved most effective in reducing the strawberry weight loss rate, decay index, and ascorbic acid degradation. Over time, all treatments exhibited increased fungal growth. However, strawberries treated with alginate and lactic acid bacteria recorded lower final colony formation counts-6.82 log CFU/g for SA + LPC, 6.04 log CFU/g for SA + LGG, and 6.26 log CFU/g for SA + LP-compared to 8.73 log CFU/g in the control group. In terms of bacterial resistance under gastrointestinal conditions, L. paracasei demonstrated the highest survival rate post-simulated gastric fluid exposure, while L. plantarum showed the greatest resilience post-simulated intestinal fluid exposure. These findings underscore the efficacy of alginate-based antimicrobial coatings in not only enhancing the storage quality of strawberries but also ensuring microbial safety and potential benefits for gut health.

Physiological and molecular responses of strawberry plants to Cd stress.

Cadmium (Cd), a toxic metal element, can be absorbed by plants via divalent metal ion transporters, thereby retarding plant growth and posing a threat to human health. Strawberries are popular and economically valuable berry species that are sensitive to soil pollutants, especially Cd. However, the mechanisms underlying Cd stress responses in strawberry plants remain largely unclear. Here, we investigated the physiological and molecular basis of Cd stress responses in strawberry plants using the diploid strawberry 'Yellow Wonder' as a material. The results indicated that Cd stress induced oxidative damage, repressed photosynthetic efficiency, and interfered with the accumulation and redistribution of trace elements. Furthermore, Cd stress reduced the concentrations of indoleacetic acid, trans-zeatin riboside and gibberellic acid while increasing the concentration of abscisic acid, thus altering the phytohormone signaling pathway in strawberry plants. Cd stress also inhibited the expression of genes involved in nitrogen uptake and assimilation while promoting the energy supply for plant survival under Cd toxicity. Moreover, the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway was induced, and the anthocyanin concentration increased, thereby improving the free radical scavenging capacity of strawberry plants under Cd toxicity. Additionally, we identified several transcription factors and functional genes as hub genes based on a weighted gene coexpression network analysis. These results collectively provide a theoretical foundation for strawberry breeding and ensuring agriculture and food safety.

The improvement of water barrier property in gelatin/carboxymethyl cellulose composite film by electrostatic interaction regulation and its application in strawberry preservation.

Gelatin (GL) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) are common natural components for edible films, but their water barrier performance are finite as hydrophilic polymers. In this study, a GL/CMC water barrier film was prepared, characterized and applied. The microstructure results showed that complex coacervation at pH 2.0 and cross-linking effect of sodium benzoate resulted in strong interaction forces and dense structure of this film. Compared with pure GL or CMC film, this novel composite film decreased water vapor permeability by approximately 90%, and possessed applicable water solubility (51.5%) and stronger barrier to oxygen and UV light. Acidic environment and sodium benzoate endowed antibacterial activity. Furthermore, the water barrier coating film decreased water loss by 47.8% and improved overall quality of fresh strawberries stored at 25 °C for 6 d. Therefore, the novel water barrier film based on complex coacervation and cross-linking is promising to control the postharvest quality of perishable berries.

Polyethylene microplastics alter root functionality and affect strawberry plant physiology and fruit quality traits.

Strawberry, a globally popular crop whose fruit are known for their taste and health benefits, were used to evaluate the effects of polyethylene microplastics (PE-MPs) on plant physiology and fruit quality. Plants were grown in 2-L pots with natural soil mixed with PE-MPs at two concentrations (0.2% and 0.02%; w/w) and sizes (⌀ 35 and 125 µm). Plant physiological responses, root histochemical and anatomical analyses as well as fruit biometric and quality features were conducted. Plants subjected to ⌀ 35 µm/0.2% PE-MPs exhibited the most severe effects in terms of CO2 assimilation due to stomatal limitations, along with the highest level of oxidative stress in roots. Though no differences were observed in plant biomass, the impact on fruit quality traits was severe in ⌀ 35 µm/0.2% MPs treatment resulting in a drop in fruit weight (-42%), soluble solid (-10%) and anthocyanin contents (-25%). The smallest sized PE-MPs, adsorbed on the root surface, impaired plant water status by damaging the radical apparatus, which finally resulted in alteration of plant physiology and fruit quality. Further research is required to determine if these alterations also occur with other MPs and to understand more deeply the MPs influence on fruit physio-chemistry.

Polysaccharide Peptide Treatment Eliminates Strawberry Viruses and Promotes Strawberry Plant Growth and Rooting in Tissue Culture Media.

Based on our previous finding that polysaccharide peptide (PSP) has substantial antiviral activity, we cultured strawberry plants infected with strawberry mild yellow edge virus (SMYEV) or strawberry vein banding virus (SVBV) in Murashige and Skoog (MS) media supplemented with PSP to test its ability to eliminate these viruses. PSP not only improved the elimination of SMYEV and SVBV but also promoted the growth and rooting of strawberry plants in tissue culture. On the 45th day, the average height of the 'Ningyu' strawberry plants in the 1-mg/ml PSP treatment group was 1.91 cm, whereas that of the plants in the control group was 1.51 cm. After the same time point, the number of new leaves on the tissue culture media supplemented with 1 mg/ml and 500 µg/ml of PSP and without PSP were 4.92, 4.41, and 3.53, respectively. PSP also promoted strawberry rooting and significantly increased both the length and number of roots. In addition, after treatment with the 1-mg/ml PSP treatment in tissue culture for 45 days followed by meristem-shoot-tip culture, the elimination rates of SMYEV and SVBV in regenerated 'Ningyu' strawberry plants ranged from 60 to 100%. This study investigated the use of the antiviral agent PSP for virus elimination. PSP has a low production cost and thus has great application potential for virus elimination in crop plants.

Effect of postharvest nicotinamide treatment on NAD+ metabolism and redox status in strawberry fruit during storage.

The increased activity of PARP enzymes is associated with a deficiency of NAD+, as well as with a loss of NADPH and ATP, and consequent deterioration of the redox state in fruits. In this study, we checked whether treatment with nicotinamide (NAM) would affect PARP-1 expression and NAD+ metabolism in strawberry fruit during storage. For this purpose, strawberry fruits were treated with 10 mM NAM and co-treated with NAM and UV-C, and then stored for 5 days at 4 °C. Research showed that nicotinamide contributes to reducing oxidative stress level by reducing PARP-1 mRNA gene expression and the protein level resulting in higher NAD+ availability, as well as improving energy metabolism and NADPH levels in fruits, regardless of whether they are exposed to UV-C. The above effects cause fruits treated with nicotinamide to be characterised by higher anti-radical activity, and a lower level of reactive oxygen species in the tissue.

The Influence of Polyols on the Process Kinetics and Bioactive Substance Content in Osmotic Dehydrated Organic Strawberries.

In recent years, an increasing interest in reducing sugar consumption has been observed and many studies are conducted on the use of polyols in the osmotic dehydration process to obtain candied or dried fruits. The studies in the literature have focused on the kinetics of the process as well as the basic physical properties. In the scientific literature, there is a lack of investigation of the influence of such polyol solutions such as sorbitol and mannitol used as osmotic substances during the osmotic dehydration process on the contents of bioactive components, including natural colourants. Thus, the aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of polyols (mannitol and sorbitol) in different concentrations on the process kinetics and on chosen physical (colour and structural changes) as well as chemical (sugars and polyol content, total anthocyanin content, total polyphenol content, vitamin C, antioxidant activity) properties of osmotic-dehydrated organic strawberries. Generally, the results showed that the best solution for osmotic dehydration is 30% or 40% sorbitol solutions, while mannitol solution is not recommended due to difficulties with preparing a high-concentration solution and its crystallization in the tissue. In the case of sorbitol, the changes of bioactive compounds, as well as colour change, were similar to the sucrose solution. However, the profile of the sugar changed significantly, in which sucrose, glucose, and fructose were reduced in organic strawberries and were partially replaced by polyols.

Preparation and characterization of polylactic acid/fenugreek essential oil/curcumin composite films for food packaging applications.

Curcumin and Fenugreek essential oil (FEO) were blended into the PLA matrix by solution casting technique to improve the functional properties of the composite film. Both fillers (curcumin and FEO) were properly combined and uniformly distributed in the polymer matrix to create a PLA-compatible composite evidenced by Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) results. The addition of FEO and curcumin to the composite film improved UV-blocking, surface color, tensile strength, flexibility, thickness, and Water contact angle (WCA). However, the inclusion of curcumin and FEO slightly diminish the Water vapor permeability (WVP) while maintaining its thermal stability. The PLA-based composite film exhibited good antibacterial and anti-oxidant properties. In addition, a food quality test was performed on strawberry, and the results were compared to the commercial (polyethylene) film.

Promoter analysis of the SPATULA (FvSPT) and SPIRAL (FvSPR) genes in the woodland diploid strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.).

The aim of this study was to identify transcription factor (TF) binding sites and cis-regulatory elements (CREs) on the promoters of FvSPR1-like2 (SPIRAL) and FvSPT (SPATULA) genes in the woodland diploid strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.). We identified: (1) MYB59, WRKY25 and WRKY8 TFs which play a role in ethylene signaling; (2) ARF family of TFs which play a role in ARF-mediated auxin signaling on the promoter of FvSPR1-like2 gene; (3) ARR family of TFs which play a role in cytokinin signaling; (4) ERF family of TFs which play a role in ethylene signaling on the promoter of FvSPT. This bioinformatic analysis of TFs and CREs may provide a better understanding of the function of genes involved in, and the mechanism underlying, non-climateric ripening during strawberry fruit maturation.

Effect of Exogenous Auxin Treatment on Cell Wall Polymers of Strawberry Fruit.

The role of auxin in the fruit-ripening process during the early developmental stages of commercial strawberry fruits (Fragaria x ananassa) has been previously described, with auxin production occurring in achenes and moving to the receptacle. Additionally, fruit softening is a consequence of the depolymerization and solubilization of cell wall components produced by the action of a group of proteins and enzymes. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of exogenous auxin treatment on the physiological properties of the cell wall-associated polysaccharide contents of strawberry fruits. We combined thermogravimetric (TG) analysis with analyses of the mRNA abundance, enzymatic activity, and physiological characteristics related to the cell wall. The samples did not show a change in fruit firmness at 48 h post-treatment; by contrast, we showed changes in the cell wall stability based on TG and differential thermogravimetric (DTG) analysis curves. Less degradation of the cell wall polymers was observed after auxin treatment at 48 h post-treatment. The results of our study indicate that auxin treatment delays the cell wall disassembly process in strawberries.

Simple Osthole/Nanocarrier Pesticide Efficiently Controls Both Pests and Diseases Fulfilling the Need of Green Production of Strawberry.

The application of botanical pesticides is a good choice in organic agriculture. However, most botanical pesticides have limitations of slow action and short persistence for pest and disease management, which constrain their further application. With the objective of exploring a green pesticide for controlling strawberry pests and diseases simultaneously, a star polymer (SPc) with a low production cost was synthesized as a pesticide nanocarrier through simple reactions. The SPc complexed with osthole quickly through electrostatic interaction and hydrophobic association, which decreased the particle size of osthole down to the nanoscale (17.66 nm). With the help of SPc, more nano-sized osthole was delivered into cytoplasm through endocytosis, leading to the enhanced cytotoxicity against insect cells. As a green botanical pesticide, the control efficacy of the osthole/SPc complex was improved against main strawberry pests (green peach aphid and two-spotted spider mite) and disease (powdery mildew), which fulfilled the need of both pest and disease management in sustainable production of strawberry. Meanwhile, the introduction of SPc not only improved plant-uptake but also decreased the residue of osthole due to the higher degradation rate. Furthermore, the application of the osthole/SPc complex exhibited no influence on the strawberry fruit quality and nontarget predators. To our knowledge, it is the first success to control plant pests and diseases simultaneously for sustainable agriculture by only one pesticidal formulation based on nanoparticle-delivered botanical pesticides.

N6-methyladenosine RNA modification regulates strawberry fruit ripening in an ABA-dependent manner.

BACKGROUND: Epigenetic mark such as DNA methylation plays pivotal roles in regulating ripening of both climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. However, it remains unclear whether mRNA m6A methylation, which has been shown to regulate ripening of the tomato, a typical climacteric fruit, is functionally conserved for ripening control among different types of fruits. RESULTS: Here we show that m6A methylation displays a dramatic change at ripening onset of strawberry, a classical non-climacteric fruit. The m6A modification in coding sequence (CDS) regions appears to be ripening-specific and tends to stabilize the mRNAs, whereas m6A around the stop codons and within the 3' untranslated regions is generally negatively correlated with the abundance of associated mRNAs. We identified thousands of transcripts with m6A hypermethylation in the CDS regions, including those of NCED5, ABAR, and AREB1 in the abscisic acid (ABA) biosynthesis and signaling pathway. We demonstrate that the methyltransferases MTA and MTB are indispensable for normal ripening of strawberry fruit, and MTA-mediated m6A modification promotes mRNA stability of NCED5 and AREB1, while facilitating translation of ABAR. CONCLUSION: Our findings uncover that m6A methylation regulates ripening of the non-climacteric strawberry fruit by targeting the ABA pathway, which is distinct from that in the climacteric tomato fruit.

Ethylene application at the immature stage of Fragaria chiloensis fruit represses the anthocyanin biosynthesis with a concomitant accumulation of lignin.

Ethylene seems to play a secondary role in non-climacteric strawberry ripening compared to abscisic acid. However, this does not exclude that ethylene can regulate some specific events related to the ripening process. Preliminary experiments of applications of ethylene or its inhibitor 1-MCP to strawberry fruits have reinforced this hypothesis. Here, we reveal some previously non-covered physiological effects of ethylene using an in vitro strawberry ripening system. Fruits of Fragaria chiloensis treated with ethephon at the large green developmental stage showed inhibition of anthocyanin biosynthesis and downregulation of essential anthocyanin biosynthesis genes during the ripening. At the same time, ethylene stimulated lignin biosynthesis and remarkably upregulated the expression of FcPOD27. Since contrasting results have been reported when ethylene was applied at late ripening developmental stages, our findings support the hypothesis of a temporal-specific ethylene role in the ripening of strawberry fruits.

Adhesive film applications help to prepare strawberry fruit sections for desorption electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry imaging.

Desorption electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry imaging (DESI-MSI) is a powerful tool to analyze the distribution of metabolites in biological tissues. Cryosectioning of biological tissues is usually required prior to DESI-MSI, but it can be difficult for tissues that are fragile, hard, and have a high-water content. The Kawamoto method uses transparent adhesive films to prepare cryosections; however, its application for plant tissues, such as strawberry tissues, in DESI-MSI has not been verified. In this study, strawberry cryosections maintained original structures were prepared using adhesive film. Subsequently, numerous peaks were detected for the sections using the positive and negative ion modes of DESI-MSI. Several primary and specialized metabolites, such as amino acids, sugars, organic acids, and flavonoids, were identified and visualized. These results suggest the use of adhesive films when cryosectioning could improve DESI-MSI analysis of the metabolites in strawberry fruits and various tissues of other plant species.

Fully dilutable Thymus vulgaris essential oil:acetic or propionic acid microemulsions are potent fruit disinfecting solutions.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of acetic (AA) or propionic (PA) acid as a cosurfactant on the microemulsion (ME) characteristics of Thymus vulgaris essential oil (TVO). The results showed that addition of propylene glycol to TVO/AA or PA:T80/water MEs gave dilutable systems with particles ~59 nm in diameter. Plain TVO showed the highest antimicrobial activity against E. coli, S. aureus, and S. typhi in in vitro antimicrobial tests, followed closely by AA/PA-MEs. The antimicrobial activity of AA/PA-MEs used as a washing solution on cucumber and strawberry samples was remarkably greater than those of free TVO, TVO nanoemulsions, and chlorhexidine solutions against E. coli and S. aureus. The sensory properties of the samples were not changed by the use of AA/PA-MEs at 0.05 or 0.1% TVO. The results introduce dilutable TVO:AA/PA-MEs for incorporation of TVO in aqueous systems for use as a fruit/vegetable disinfecting agent.

Chitin in Strawberry Cultivation: Foliar Growth and Defense Response Promotion, but Reduced Fruit Yield and Disease Resistance by Nutrient Imbalances.

Strawberry cultivation is associated with high mineral fertilizer doses and extensive use of chemical plant protection products. Based on previous research, we expected that chitin application to peat substrate would increase the nutrient availability and activate the plant systemic defense response, resulting in higher strawberry yields and fewer disease symptoms. We set up two experiments in which the temporal variability and differences in initial nutrient concentrations of the growing media were taken into account. Chitin treatment resulted in the attraction of plant growth-promoting fungi toward the plant root, such as species from genera Mortierella and Umbelopsis. In addition, by the end of the experiments 87 mg of mineral nitrogen (N) per liter of substrate was mineralized, which can be related to the observed increase in plant shoot biomass. This, however, led to nutrient imbalances in plant shoots and fruit; N concentration in the leaves increased over 30%, exceeding the optimal range, while phosphorous (P) and potassium (K) deficiencies occurred, with concentrations lower than 50% of the optimal range. This may explain the decreased fruit yield and disease resistance of the fruit toward Botrytis cinerea. In contrast, chitin caused a clear defense priming effect in the strawberry leaves, with a strong induction of the jasmonic acid response, resulting in fewer foliar disease symptoms. Chitin causes positive effects on shoot growth and foliar disease resistance, but caution needs to be taken for nutrient imbalances leading to negative influences on root growth, fruit production, and disease susceptibility toward B. cinerea.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Expression profiling of endo-xylanases during ripening of strawberry cultivars with contrasting softening rates. Influence of postharvest and hormonal treatments.

BACKGROUND: Softening is one of the main features that determine fruit quality during strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa, Duch.) ripening and storage. Being closely related to textural changes, the molecular and biochemical bases underlying strawberry cell-wall metabolism is a matter of interest. Here we investigated the abundance of transcripts encoding putative strawberry endo-xylanases in plant tissues, during fruit ripening and under postharvest and hormonal treatments. Total xylanase activity and expression of related genes in strawberry varieties with contrasting firmness were analyzed. RESULTS: FaXynA and FaXynC mRNA abundance was significantly higher than FaXynB in each plant tissue studied. Higher total xylanase activity was detected at the end of the ripening of the softer cultivar ('Toyonoka') in comparison with the firmer one ('Camarosa'), correlating with the abundance of FaXynA and FaXynC transcripts. Postharvest 1-methylcyclopropene treatment up-regulated FaXynA and FaXynC expressions. FaXynC mRNA abundance decreased with heat treatment but the opposite was observed for FaXynA. Calcium chloride treatment down-regulated FaXynA and FaXynC expression. Both genes responded differently to plant growth regulators' exposure. FaXynC expression was down-regulated by auxins and gibberellins treatment and up-regulated by abscisic acid. FaXynA was up-regulated by auxins, while no changes in mRNA levels were evident by abscisic acid and gibberellins treatment. Ethephon exposure did not change FaXynA and FaXynC expressions. CONCLUSION: New knowledge about the presence of xylanases in ripening strawberry fruit and their response to postharvest and hormonal treatments is provided. Our findings suggest a role for endo-xylanases in hemicelluloses depolymerization and possibly in strawberry fruit softening. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.