Mycobacterium avium and Klebsiella pneumoniae co-infection in the domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) - Case Report.

Introduction and Objective. Pets infected with zoonotic pathogens might become a source of infections for their owners, especially those who are immuno-compromised. The aim of this report is to describe a case of chronic, untreatable pneumonia in a domestic ferret. Materials and method. The subject was a 5-year-old female ferret suffering from recurrent pneumonia. Ante-mortally, swabs from the nasal cavity, alveolus and throat were collected from the animal. Post-mortally, lesioned organ fragments were collected. Standard microbiological testing was performed. Additionally, mycobacterial diagnosis including culture and molecular tests was performed. Results. The co-infection of Mycobacterium avium and Klebsiella pneumoniae was microbiologically confirmed. Conclusions. This case demonstrates the need to pay attention to the possibility of zoonotic pathogens in ferrets. Veterinarians diagnosing ferrets are potentially exposed to Mycobacteria spp. infections and other pathogens.

COMPARISON OF FECAL CYTOLOGY AND PRESENCE OF CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS ENTEROTOXIN IN CAPTIVE BLACK-FOOTED FERRETS (MUSTELA NIGRIPES) BASED ON DIET AND FECAL QUALITY.

The black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) is an endangered mustelid native to North America. Gastroenteritis is a documented cause of morbidity and mortality in managed individuals, particularly by infectious agents. Fecal cytology is an inexpensive and rapid test that can help guide clinical management strategies for animals with enteritis; however, normal parameters have not been established in black-footed ferrets. The objective of this study was to characterize fecal cytological findings of 50 fecal samples from 18 black-footed ferrets that received two different diet types (ground meat versus whole prey) and that were visibly judged to be normal or abnormal. This study also tested for the presence of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in all abnormal and a subset of normal fecal samples. Significantly higher spore-forming bacteria and yeast prevalence were present in normal feces from individuals following the meat-based compared with the whole-prey diet. Samples from individuals with abnormal feces had significantly more spore-forming bacteria than normal feces, regardless of diet. Normal feces had higher diplococci and spore-forming bacteria compared with domestic canine and feline standards. A single abnormal fecal sample was positive for enterotoxin and originated from the only animal requiring treatment. Results indicate that low numbers of spore-forming bacteria can be found in fecal samples from clinically normal black-footed ferrets. Fecal cytology shows significantly increased spore-formers in clinically abnormal ferrets and in clinically normal ferrets following a ground meat-based diet.

A glance at the gut microbiota of five experimental animal species through fecal samples.

Experimental animals including the ferret, marmoset, woodchuck, mini pig, and tree shrew have been used in biomedical research. However, their gut microbiota have not been fully investigated. In this study, the gut microbiota of these five experimental animals were analyzed with 16S rRNA sequencing. The phyla Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Fusobacteria were present in the gut microbiota of all the species. Specific phyla were present in different animals: Proteobacteria in the ferret, Tenericutes in the marmoset, and Spirochaetes in the mini pig. Fusobacterium and unidentified Clostridiales were the dominant genera in the ferret, whereas Libanicoccus, Lactobacillus, Porphyromonas, and Peptoclostridium were specific to marmoset, mini pig, woodchuck, and tree shrew, respectively. A clustering analysis showed that the overall distribution of microbial species in the guts of these species mirrored their mammalian phylogeny, and the microbiota of the marmoset and tree shrew showed the closest bray_curtis distances to that of humans. PICRUSt functional prediction separated the woodchuck from the other species, which may reflect its herbivorous diet. In conclusion, both the evolutionary phylogeny and daily diet affect the gut microbiota of these experimental animals, which should not be neglected for their usage in biomedical research.

Wildlife Carnivorous Mammals As a Specific Mirror of Environmental Contamination with Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli Strains in Poland.

In recent decades, the number of studies on the occurrence of resistant strains in wildlife animals has increased significantly, but data are still fragmentary. The aim of this study was to evaluate drug resistance of Escherichia coli strains isolated from wild carnivorous mammals, common in Poland. Selective media with antimicrobials (tetracycline, kanamycin, chloramphenicol, and cefotaxime) were used for isolation. Of 53 isolates shown to be distinct by the amplification of DNA fragments surrounding rare restriction site-fingerprinting method, 77.8% were multidrug-resistant (multidrug-resistant). All strains were resistant to ampicillin and many of them also exhibited resistance to tetracycline (76.2%), sulfamethoxazole (57.1%), streptomycin and kanamycin (49.2%), chloramphenicol (30.1%), and nalidixic acid (46%). In most cases, the phenotypic resistance profile was confirmed by detection of relevant genes mostly occurring in strains isolated from livestock animals and humans. Extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producing strains were detected in one mink and three martens. The strains were carriers of blaTEM-1, blaTEM-135, and blaCTX-M-15 genes. Our research confirmed a high carrier rate of MDR E. coli, even more than one MDR strain in a single individual; therefore, wider monitoring in this group of animals should be considered.

Emerging Zoonotic Diseases in Ferrets.

As veterinarians, we may be the first to diagnose emerging zoonotic diseases in ferrets and may be at increased risk of exposure. Pseudomonas luteola is a bacterial infection that causes respiratory disease, panniculitis, sialadenitis, and abscess formation. Hepatitis E virus can cause subclinical infection, acute hepatitis, and persistent infection. Since the 2013 article discussing the 2009 influenza pandemic affecting ferrets, there has been an additional case of suspected anthroponotic infection in a pet ferret and experimental infection with influenza viruses from humans, cats, and dogs.

Tick-borne pathogens in the European polecat, Mustela putorius and in attached Ixodes hexagonus ticks from Germany.

The European polecat, Mustela putorius, occurs almost throughout Europe. However, there is a lack of data on the ectoparasite fauna and the potential role in the circulation of tick-borne pathogens (TBP) of this mustelid species. The aim of this study was to investigate whether M. putorius contributes to the maintenance of TBP in Germany. DNA samples extracted from spleen tissue of 117 M. putorius, which had been collected mainly in North-western Germany from 2012 to 2015, were tested by real-time and conventional PCRs for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia spp., Bartonella spp., Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis (CNM) and Hepatozoon spp. In addition, 200 randomly selected engorged Ixodes hexagonus ticks (100 females and 100 nymphs) collected from 39 of the 88 M. putorius were tested for these TBPs, except for Hepatozoon spp., and additionally for Borrelia spp. and Rickettsia spp. Three of six pathogens were detected in the spleen tissue of the 117 M. putorius: A. phagocytophilum (n = 5; 4.3%), Babesia cf. odocoilei (n = 1; 0.9%) and CNM (n = 1; 0.9%), including one case of co-infection (A. phagocytophilum and CNM). Ixodes hexagonus ticks tested positive only for Bartonella spp. (26/200 ticks; 13.0%) which were detected exclusively in adult female ticks. Sequencing revealed the presence of Bartonella taylorii and uncultured Bartonella spp. The results suggest that M. putorius neither seems to serve as the main reservoir nor plays an important role in maintaining TBPs in Germany but may rather contribute to the dilution of these pathogens. However, M. putorius contributes to the maintenance of tick populations, especially of I. hexagonus. The high prevalence of Bartonella spp. in I. hexagonus ticks may suggest a certain importance of this tick species in the maintenance of these bacteria in nature.

Role of mustelids in the life-cycle of ixodid ticks and transmission cycles of four tick-borne pathogens.

BACKGROUND: Elucidating which wildlife species significantly contribute to the maintenance of Ixodes ricinus populations and the enzootic cycles of the pathogens they transmit is imperative in understanding the driving forces behind the emergence of tick-borne diseases. Here, we aimed to quantify the relative contribution of four mustelid species in the life-cycles of I. ricinus and Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato) in forested areas and to investigate their role in the transmission of other tick-borne pathogens. Road-killed badgers, pine martens, stone martens and polecats were collected in Belgium and the Netherlands. Their organs and feeding ticks were tested for the presence of tick-borne pathogens. RESULTS: Ixodes hexagonus and I. ricinus were found on half of the screened animals (n = 637). Pine martens had the highest I. ricinus burden, whereas polecats had the highest I. hexagonus burden. We detected DNA from B. burgdorferi (s.l.) and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in organs of all four mustelid species (n = 789), and Neoehrlichia mikurensis DNA was detected in all species, except badgers. DNA from B. miyamotoi was not detected in any of the investigated mustelids. From the 15 larvae of I. ricinus feeding on pine martens (n = 44), only one was positive for B. miyamotoi DNA, and all tested negative for B. burgdorferi (s.l.), N. mikurensis and A. phagocytophilum. The two feeding larvae from the investigated polecats (n = 364) and stone martens (n = 39) were negative for all four pathogens. The infection rate of N. mikurensis was higher in feeding nymphs collected from mustelids compared to questing nymphs, but not for B. burgdorferi (s.l.), B. miyamotoi or A. phagocytophilum. CONCLUSIONS: Although all stages of I. ricinus can be found on badgers, polecats, pine and stone martens, their relative contribution to the life-cycle of I. ricinus in forested areas is less than 1%. Consequently, the relative contribution of mustelids to the enzootic cycles of I. ricinus-borne pathogens is negligible, despite the presence of these pathogens in organs and feeding ticks. Interestingly, all four mustelid species carried all stages of I. hexagonus, potentially maintaining enzootic cycles of this tick species apart from the cycle involving hedgehogs as main host species.

Dermatophytic pseudomycetomas in two ferrets (Mustela putorius furo).

BACKGROUND: Dermatophytic pseudomycetoma is an atypical form of dermatophytosis where the infection is located in the deep dermal and subcutaneous tissues. Although rare, it is most commonly associated with Microsporum canis or Trichophyton sp. It has been reported in cats, dogs and horses. OBJECTIVES: To describe the clinical and pathological findings of dermatophytic pseudomycetoma caused by M. canis and Trichophyton sp. in two domestic ferrets. ANIMALS: Two pet ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). METHOD AND MATERIALS: Case report. RESULTS: Two ferrets were diagnosed with dermatophytic pseudomycetoma confirmed by histological examination of tissue and fungal culture. In both cases, ferrets presented with several cutaneous firm nodules 0.6-3 cm in diameter. Microscopic lesions revealed multifocal nodular pyogranulomatous inflammation with intralesional fungi. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first description of dermatophytic pseudomycetoma in domestic ferrets. This disease should be included in the differential diagnosis of nodular dermatopathies in this species.

Impact of Sylvatic Plague Vaccine on Non-target Small Rodents in Grassland Ecosystems.

Oral vaccination is an emerging management strategy to reduce the prevalence of high impact infectious diseases within wild animal populations. Plague is a flea-borne zoonosis of rodents that often decimates prairie dog (Cynomys spp.) colonies in the western USA. Recently, an oral sylvatic plague vaccine (SPV) was developed to protect prairie dogs from plague and aid recovery of the endangered black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes). Although oral vaccination programs are targeted toward specific species, field distribution of vaccine-laden baits can result in vaccine uptake by non-target animals and unintended indirect effects. We assessed the impact of SPV on non-target rodents at paired vaccine and placebo-treated prairie dog colonies in four US states from 2013 to 2015. Bait consumption by non-target rodents was high (70.8%, n = 3113), but anti-plague antibody development on vaccine plots was low (23.7%, n = 266). In addition, no significant differences were noted in combined deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis) abundance or community evenness and richness of non-target rodents between vaccine-treated and placebo plots. In our 3-year field study, we could not detect a significant positive or negative effect of SPV application on non-target rodents.

Infection Is Not Required for Mucoinflammatory Lung Disease in CFTR-Knockout Ferrets.

RATIONALE: Classical interpretation of cystic fibrosis (CF) lung disease pathogenesis suggests that infection initiates disease progression, leading to an exuberant inflammatory response, excessive mucus, and ultimately bronchiectasis. Although symptomatic antibiotic treatment controls lung infections early in disease, lifelong bacterial residence typically ensues. Processes that control the establishment of persistent bacteria in the CF lung, and the contribution of noninfectious components to disease pathogenesis, are poorly understood. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate whether continuous antibiotic therapy protects the CF lung from disease using a ferret model that rapidly acquires lethal bacterial lung infections in the absence of antibiotics. METHODS: CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator)-knockout ferrets were treated with three antibiotics from birth to several years of age and lung disease was followed by quantitative computed tomography, BAL, and histopathology. Lung disease was compared with CFTR-knockout ferrets treated symptomatically with antibiotics. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Bronchiectasis was quantified from computed tomography images. BAL was evaluated for cellular differential and features of inflammatory cellular activation, bacteria, fungi, and quantitative proteomics. Semiquantitative histopathology was compared across experimental groups. We demonstrate that lifelong antibiotics can protect the CF ferret lung from infections for several years. Surprisingly, CF animals still developed hallmarks of structural bronchiectasis, neutrophil-mediated inflammation, and mucus accumulation, despite the lack of infection. Quantitative proteomics of BAL from CF and non-CF pairs demonstrated a mucoinflammatory signature in the CF lung dominated by Muc5B and neutrophil chemoattractants and products. CONCLUSIONS: These findings implicate mucoinflammatory processes in the CF lung as pathogenic in the absence of clinically apparent bacterial and fungal infections.

FLEAS OF BLACK-FOOTED FERRETS (MUSTELA NIGRIPES) AND THEIR POTENTIAL ROLE IN THE MOVEMENT OF PLAGUE.

Sylvatic plague is one of the major impediments to the recovery of the black-footed ferret ( Mustela nigripes ) because it decimates their primary prey species, prairie dogs ( Cynomys spp.), and directly causes mortality in ferrets. Fleas are the primary vector of Yersinia pestis , the causative agent of sylvatic plague. The goal of this research was to better understand the flea fauna of ferrets and the factors that might influence flea abundance on ferrets. Fleas from ferrets were tested for Y. pestis in a post hoc assessment to investigate the plausibility that some ferrets could act as incidental transporter hosts of fleas infected with Y. pestis . Fleas were collected from ferrets captured on the Lower Brule Indian Reservation in central South Dakota, US from 2009 to 2012. A total of 528 fleas collected from 67 individual ferrets were identified and tested for the presence of Y. pestis with a nested PCR assay. The predominant flea recovered from ferrets was Oropsylla hirsuta , a species that comprises 70-100% of the fleas recovered from prairie dogs and their burrows in the study area. Yersinia pestis was detected at low levels in fleas collected from ferrets with prevalence ranging from 0% to 2.9%; male ferrets harbored significantly more fleas than female ferrets. Six of 67 ferrets vaccinated against plague carried fleas that tested positive for Y. pestis , which suggests ferrets vaccinated against plague could inadvertently act as incidental transporter hosts of Y. pestis -positive fleas.

Evidence of disseminated infection by Mycobacterium avium subspecies hominissuis in a pet ferret (Mustela putorius furo).

The infection caused by the zoonotic opportunistic pathogen Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis (Mah) was reported for the first time in a pet ferret. Both owners were HIV-positive. Euthanasia of the pet was recommended due to medical reasons and as a preventive action. Disseminated and open tuberculosis lesions were observed in the gastrointestinal and respiratory systems of the ferret. Ecographic and radiographic surveys showed a severe generalized lymphadenopathy, strong thickening of the gastric wall and peritoneum layer. The histopathological findings revealed a disseminated, granulomatous, chronic inflammation affecting the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, lymphoid tissues (spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes) and liver. Ziehl-Neelsen staining displayed the presence of positive acid-fast bacilli within these granulomas. Bacteriology and sequencing of the isolates yielded Mah sequevar code 3. Ferrets can act as reservoirs of mycobacteria exposing their owners to the infection, which is of major concern in immunodeficient individuals, as those HIV-infected.

Feral ferrets (Mustela furo) as hosts and sentinels of tuberculosis in New Zealand.

The control and eventual eradication of bovine tuberculosis (TB) poses major challenges in New Zealand, given the variety of wildlife species susceptible to TB, many of which are capable of onwards transmission of Mycobacterium bovis infection. Here we discuss the role of feral ferrets (Mustela furo), focussing on potential transmission or risk pathways that have implications for management of TB. Firstly inter-specific transmission to ferrets. Ferrets scavenge potentially infected wildlife, including other ferrets, thus prevalence of TB can be amplified through ferrets feeding on tuberculous carcasses, particularly brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). Secondly intra-specific transmission between ferrets. The rate of ferret-ferret transmission depends on population density, and in some places ferret densities exceed the estimated threshold for disease persistence. TB can therefore potentially be maintained independently of other sources of infection. Thirdly transmission from ferrets to other wildlife. These include the main wildlife maintenance host, brushtail possums, that will occasionally scavenge potentially tuberculous ferret carcasses. Fourthly transmission from ferrets to livestock. This is considered to occur occasionally, but the actual rate of transmission has never been measured. Fifthly geographical spread. M. bovis-infected ferrets can travel large distances and cause new outbreaks of TB at locations previously free of TB, which may have caused an expansion of TB-endemic areas. Ferrets play a complex role in the TB cycle in New Zealand; they are capable of contracting, amplifying and transmitting M. bovis infection, sometimes resulting in ferret populations with a high prevalence of TB. However, ferret population densities are usually too low to sustain infection independently, and transmission to other wildlife or livestock appears a rarer event than with possums. Nevertheless, management of ferrets remains a key part of the National Pest Management Strategy for TB. Control is prudent where M. bovis-infected ferret populations exist in high numbers, to reduce the onward transmission risk of any self-sustained infection to livestock. When ferret numbers are well below the theoretical disease maintenance threshold, ferret control is still sometimes warranted because of the animals' ability to acquire infection when young and, through dispersal, transport it outside TB-endemic areas. Ferrets can also be used as disease sentinels for TB, especially in areas where alternative sentinel species are rare or expensive to survey, and when sampling of possums is not cost-effective.

[Immunoallergic skin manifestations associated with new pets: three cases]. / Manifestations cutanées immuno-allergiques liées aux nouveaux animaux de compagnie : trois observations.

BACKGROUND: The number of household pets increased greatly during the twentieth century, with numbers of new pets (NP, i.e. any pets other than cats and dogs) rising especially sharply over the last decade. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We first of all report the case of a female patient with eczema lesions on areas skin coming into contact with a ferret, with removal of the animal resulting in wound healing, followed by two patients presenting atypical polymorphous erythema reactions induced by dermatophytes present in their pet rat. DISCUSSION: While the most common allergies are respiratory, allergic skin reactions, both immediate and delayed, may also result from contact with these new allergens. The animal itself or its environment may be the cause.

Fecal microbiota and antibiotic resistance in ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) from two captive breeding facilities in Italy.

The microbiota of the intestinal tract plays important roles in the overall health, productivity and well-being of the animals. We have characterized the intestinal microbiota of the ferret because its human cohabitation may increase the possibility of new zoonosis. The presence of anaerobic and microaerophilic bacteria has been evaluated in fresh fecal specimens of 40 ferrets in apparently good health. The bacteria most frequently isolated were Clostridium acetobutylicum (25/40 samples, 62.5%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 45.81-76.83%) and Helicobacter spp. (16/40 samples, 40.0%; 95% CI: 25.28-56.61%), as anaerobic and microaerophilic bacteria, respectively. The Kirby-Bauer disc-diffusion method showed penicillin, streptomycin and vancomycin resistances in high percentages (>80%) of the bacterial isolates, both in anaerobic and microaerophilic groups. Furthermore, the microaerophilic-bacteria group exhibited a significantly higher antibiotic-resistance profile compared to that of anaerobic-bacteria group. The presence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in the microbiota of the ferret gastrointestinal tract is a great concern for public health.

Mycobacteriosis in a domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo).

A 4-year-old spayed female ferret presented with a 2-month history of anorexia, vomiting and occasional diarrhea. Abdominal ultrasonography revealed thickening of the gastric wall and enlarged abdominal lymph nodes. Biopsy samples from the thickened gastric wall, enlarged abdominal lymph nodes and liver were taken during an exploratory laparotomy. Based on the histopathological examination, mycobacterium infection was diagnosed. The bacterial species could not be identified by additional diagnostic tests of feces, including fecal smear, culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The ferret was treated with prednisolone and multiple antimicrobials, including rifampicin, azithromycin and enrofloxacin, but did not improve with treatment and died 220 days after the first presentation.

Detection and identification of mycobacteria in fixed stained smears and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues using PCR.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the feasibility of using polymerase chain reaction to amplify DNA from methanol-fixed, Romanowsky-stained and Ziehl-Neelsen-stained smears to confirm the presence of mycobacteria. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Tissue was obtained from 10 archival slides and 27 slides from a prospective series of consecutive cases. Phosphate buffered saline (500 µL) was pipetted onto a stained smear (on a glass slide) using a disposable filtered pipette tip. The material adherent to the slide was scraped from its surface and drawn up into the saline. Routine DNA extraction and purification was carried out before nested polymerase chain reaction testing targeting the 16S-23S internal transcribed spacer region or a TaqMan real-time polymerase chain reaction. The real-time polymerase chain reaction was also used on thick sections cut from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue blocks from 24 canine leproid granulomas. RESULTS: Mycobacterial DNA was detected in 34 of 37 slides. Polymerase chain reaction products could not be amplified from three archived smears stained using the Ziehl-Neelsen acid-fast method, probably because its harsher fixation damaged the DNA. With the nested polymerase chain reaction, species identification using internal transcribed spacer sequence analysis was achieved in all instances, diagnosing a wide range of mycobacteria. The real-time polymerase chain reaction detected Mycobacterium sp. CLG DNA within all 24 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded specimens tested. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: This technique should provide a non-invasive and cost-effective means of diagnosing mycobacterial infections.

Wildlife mortality investigation and disease research: contributions of the USGS National Wildlife Health Center to endangered species management and recovery.

The U.S. Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center (NWHC) provides diagnostic services, technical assistance, applied research, and training to federal, state, territorial, and local government agencies and Native American tribes on wildlife diseases and wildlife health issues throughout the United States and its territories, commonwealth, and freely associated states. Since 1975, >16,000 carcasses and specimens from vertebrate species listed under the Endangered Species Act have been submitted to NWHC for determination of causes of morbidity or mortality or assessment of health/disease status. Results from diagnostic investigations, analyses of the diagnostic database, technical assistance and consultation, field investigation of epizootics, and wildlife disease research by NWHC wildlife disease specialists have contributed importantly to the management and recovery of listed species.

Mycoplasmosis in ferrets.

We report an outbreak of severe respiratory disease associated with a novel Mycoplasma species in ferrets. During 2009-2012, a respiratory disease characterized by nonproductive coughing affected ≈8,000 ferrets, 6-8 weeks of age, which had been imported from a breeding facility in Canada. Almost 95% became ill, but almost none died. Treatments temporarily decreased all clinical signs except cough. Postmortem examinations of euthanized ferrets revealed bronchointerstitial pneumonia with prominent hyperplasia of bronchiole-associated lymphoid tissue. Immunohistochemical analysis with polyclonal antibody against Mycoplasma bovis demonstrated intense staining along the bronchiolar brush border. Bronchoalveolar lavage samples from 12 affected ferrets yielded fast-growing, glucose-fermenting mycoplasmas. Nucleic acid sequence analysis of PCR-derived amplicons from portions of the 16S rDNA and RNA polymerase B genes failed to identify the mycoplasmas but showed that they were most similar to M. molare and M. lagogenitalium. These findings indicate a causal association between the novel Mycoplasma species and the newly recognized pulmonary disease.