The Definition, Classification, and History of Urticaria.

The term "urticaria" was first introduced by William Cullen in the eighteenth century. Urticaria is a common mast cell-mediated cutaneous disease presenting with pruritic wheals, angioedema, or both. It is classified as acute (≤6 weeks) or chronic (>6 weeks) and as spontaneous (no definite triggers) or inducible (definite and subtype-specific triggers). The international urticaria guideline on the definition, classification, diagnosis, and management of urticaria is revised every 4 years. The global network of Urticaria Centers of Reference and Excellence, the biggest and most active consortium of urticaria specialists, offers physicians and patients several research, educational, and digital care initiatives.

Insights from the past: the work of Hans von Alten on the evolution of brain structure, ecological adaptation, and cognition in hymenopteran species.

In his treatise on arthropod brains, Hans von Alten (1910) focuses on a specific functional group of insects-the flying Hymenoptera-which exhibit a spectrum of lifestyles ranging from solitary to social. His work presents a distinctive comparative neuro-anatomical approach rooted in an eco-evolutionary and eco-behavioral background. We regard his publication as an exceptionally valuable source of information and seek to inspire the research community dedicated to the study of the insect brain to explore its insights further, even after more than 110 years. We have translated and annotated his work, expecting it to engage researchers not just with its remarkable drawings but also with its substantive content and exemplary research strategy. The present text is designed to complement von Alten's publication, situating it within the temporal context of nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century studies, and to draw connections to contemporary perspectives, especially concerning a central brain structure: the mushroom body.

The Long Journey from Animal Electricity to the Discovery of Ion Channels and the Modelling of the Human Brain.

This retrospective begins with Galvani's experiments on frogs at the end of the 18th century and his discovery of 'animal electricity'. It goes on to illustrate the numerous contributions to the field of physical chemistry in the second half of the 19th century (Nernst's equilibrium potential, based on the work of Wilhelm Ostwald, Max Planck's ion electrodiffusion, Einstein's studies of Brownian motion) which led Bernstein to propose his membrane theory in the early 1900s as an explanation of Galvani's findings and cell excitability. These processes were fully elucidated by Hodgkin and Huxley in 1952 who detailed the ionic basis of resting and action potentials, but without addressing the question of where these ions passed. The emerging question of the existence of ion channels, widely debated over the next two decades, was finally accepted and, a decade later, many of them began to be cloned. This led to the possibility of modelling the activity of individual neurons in the brain and then that of simple circuits. Taking advantage of the remarkable advances in computer science in the new millennium, together with a much deeper understanding of brain architecture, more ambitious scientific goals were dreamed of to understand the brain and how it works. The retrospective concludes by reviewing the main efforts in this direction, namely the construction of a digital brain, an in silico copy of the brain that would run on supercomputers and behave just like a real brain.

Doctor, Indian nationalist and humanitarian: Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari (1880-1936).

Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari was a doctor and remarkable political figure in the late 19th century and the first half of 20th century. After studying medicine in Edinburgh, he returned to his country and became interested in political issues. Not unlike other educated Indian Muslims, Ansari first expressed his concerns about the situation in the Ottoman empire and went to Istanbul as the head of the medical mission. Ansari, who became more interested in politics after his days in Istanbul, came to the forefront as one of the leading figures of the Indian independence movement. Along with Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), Ansari did not engage in violence but supported the unity of Muslims and Hindus and opposed communalism. Despite his active political life, Ansari continued his medical studies with great seriousness and played an active role in establishing the Delhi Medical Association in 1914. During this period, his most important aim was to graft animal testicles onto human beings.

The History of Orthopedics in the Long Term: From General Medicine to Medical Specialties.

A thorough literature search was done in PubMed and Google Scholar as well as in physical books in libraries to summarize the literature on the history and evolution of medicine and orthopedics. The philosophical ideas that emerged in ancient Greece served as a foundation for the development of medicine. In the 5th century BC, the schools of Knidos and Kos emerged as influential centers for the development of medical thinking. The field of orthopedics can be traced back to early human civilizations. Ancient Egyptians perpetuated the tradition of employing splinting techniques. Hippocrates provided insights for the diagnosis, correction and treatment of many musculoskeletal entities. The field of medicine experienced a period of limited advancement during the Middle Ages. The Renaissance provided for the foundation of modern orthopedics and important contributions to the understanding and implementation of antisepsis. The discovery of x-ray and advancements in infection control and anesthesia have shown substantial progress in the domain of orthopedics and have contributed to the development of orthopedic subspecialization. Orthopedic surgery holds a historical lineage deeply entrenched in ancient practices and early human civilizations. Physicians specializing in orthopedics should be aware of the historical origins of their discipline and continue to evolve through further subspecialization and enhanced research.

Herbert Major on the insula: An early depiction of von Economo neurones?

Herbert Major (1850-1921) undertook histopathological studies of human and non-human primate brains at the West Riding Lunatic Asylum in Wakefield, England, during the 1870s. Two of his papers specifically investigated the structure of the island of Reil, or insula, "with the view of ascertaining its exact structure". In addition to describing and illustrating its lamination as six-layered, Major also identified "spindle-shaped" cells in the lower layers of human brains, but not in non-human primates. His written description, including measurements of cell body size, and illustration are suggestive that these were the neurones later described in the frontoinsular and anterior cingulate cortex by Constantin von Economo and Georg N. Koskinas and which were subsequently given the eponym "von Economo neurones". von Economo noted that this special neuronal type had been previously seen by Betz (1881), Hammarberg (1895), and Ramón y Cajal (1899-1904), but he did not mention Major's works. Major also ascribed linguistic functions to the insula. Hence, with respect to both anatomical and physiological features, Major may have pre-empted the findings of later research on this structure.

Legacy effects of historical gold mining on floodplains of an Australian river.

The gold rush at the end of the nineteenth century in south-eastern Australia resulted in the mobilization and re-deposition of vast quantities of tailings that modified the geomorphology of the associated river valleys. Previous studies of contamination risk in these systems have either been performed directly on mine wastes (e.g., battery sand) or at locations close to historical mine sites but have largely ignored the extensive area of riverine alluvial deposits extending downstream from gold mining locations. Here we studied the distribution of contaminant metal(loids) in the Loddon River catchment, one of the most intensively mined areas of the historical gold-rush period in Australia (1851-1914). Floodplain alluvium along the Loddon River was sampled to capture differences in metal and metalloid concentrations between the anthropogenic floodplain deposits and the underlying original floodplain. Elevated levels of arsenic up to 300 mg-As/kg were identified within the anthropogenic alluvial sediment, well above sediment guidelines (ISQG-high trigger value of 70 ppm) and substantially higher than in the pre-mining alluvium. Maximum arsenic concentrations were found at depth within the anthropogenic alluvium (plume-like), close to the contact with the original floodplain. The results obtained here indicate that arsenic may pose a significantly higher risk within this river catchment than previously assessed through analysis of surface floodplain soils. The risks of this submerged arsenic plume will require further investigation of its chemical form (speciation) to determine its mobility and potential bioavailability. Our work shows the long-lasting impact of historical gold mining on riverine landscapes.

The impact of living conditions and health interventions on tuberculosis, Denmark, 1876 to 2022.

BackgroundDenmark possesses an exceptional historical data collection on tuberculosis (TB) from 1876 to the present, providing a unique opportunity to assess TB epidemiology over 147 years in Denmark.AimOur aim was to describe the TB disease burden in Denmark in relation to historical events, living conditions and health interventions during the past 147 years.MethodsWe performed a nationwide register-based ecological study including all persons with TB in Denmark from 1876 through 2022, correlating the TB incidence to social, economic and health indicators.ResultsIn Denmark, the overall TB incidence and mortality declined markedly over the past 147 years, only marginally influenced by specific TB interventions such as sanatoria, Bacillus Calmette-Guèrin (BCG) vaccination, mass screenings and antibiotics. Parallel to this decline, the country experienced improved living conditions, as illustrated by decreased infant mortality and increased life expectancy and wealth. In 1978, Denmark became a low-incidence country for TB with risk groups predominantly affected, and with a continuous change in demographics towards fewer Danish-born cases and relatively more migrant cases.ConclusionsThe decline over time in TB incidence and mortality in Denmark preceded specific TB interventions and can, first of all, be attributed to improved living conditions. TB has now become a rare disease in Denmark, predominantly occurring in particular risk groups. Future elimination of TB will require a combination of specific health interventions in these risk groups combined with a continued focus on improving socioeconomic status and living conditions.

The history of treatment planning the extraction of the first permanent molar in the UK.

This paper researches the history of treatment planning for extraction of the first permanent molars and the early influence of American orthodontists on dental practice in the UK. It also discusses the development of clinical guidelines for the enforced extraction of first permanent molars to the present day.

Ambient temperature-related sex ratio at birth in historical urban populations: the example of the city of Poznan, 1848-1900.

This study examines whether exposure to ambient temperature in nineteenth-century urban space affected the ratio of boys to girls at birth. Furthermore, we investigate the details of temperature effects timing upon sex ratio at birth. The research included 66,009 individual births, aggregated in subsequent months of births for the years 1847-1900, i.e. 33,922 boys and 32,087 girls. The statistical modelling of the probability of a girl being born is based on logistic GAM with penalized splines and automatically selected complexity. Our research emphasizes the significant effect of temperature in the year of conception: the higher the temperature was, the smaller probability of a girl being born was observed. There were also several significant temperature lags before conception and during pregnancy. Our findings indicate that in the past, ambient temperature, similar to psychological stress, hunger, malnutrition, and social and economic factors, influenced the viability of a foetus. Research on the effects of climate on the sex ratio in historical populations may allow for a better understanding of the relationship between environmental factors and reproduction, especially concerning historical populations since due to some cultural limitations, they were more prone to stronger environmental stressors than currently.

The ambiguous relationship between food and health across the centuries.

Since the Palaeolithic Age food has been closely linked to the development of the human species, meeting our energy needs and fuelling our cell metabolism. Without food there can be no life. However, over the centuries food and our eating habits have also had a damaging effect, whether through deficiencies, excesses, direct toxic effects or as a vector of pathogenic agents. The human species has known two major food revolutions: one at the start of the Neolithic Age and the other very recently in the years following the Second World War. In this article we will be looking at the ambiguous relationship between food and human health as well as the health of our planet.

Kazimierz Funk: Polish vitamins' discoverer. / Kazimierz Funk - polski odkrywca witamin.

Kazimierz Funk, born on February 23, 1884, in Warsaw, demonstrated an early inclination toward the field of human physiology. He charted his scientific trajectory within esteemed European scientific institutions, commencing at the age of 16 in Geneva, where he pursued studies in natural sciences. Subsequently, he continued his academic endeavors in Bern, culminating in the attainment of his doctorate in 1904. Following this, Funk relocated to Paris and secured a position at the Pasteur Institute. In France, his research concentrated on elucidating the role of trace elements in the human body. In 1906 he transitioned to Berlin, collaborating with Hermann Fisher (1852-1919) to investigate proteins and cancer processes. In 1910, Funk ventured to London, joining the Lister Institute, where he initiated research on beriberi disease. His investigations led to the isolation of a substance pivotal in treating the ailment, which he termed "vitamin" (derived from 'vita' meaning life and 'amine' indicating a nitrogen-containing compound). Despite four nominations for the Nobel Prize (in 1914, 1925, 1926, and 1946), Kazimierz Funk didn't receive the prestigious accolade. In 1925, at the urging of Dr. Ludwik Rajchman (1881-1965), the director of the National Institute of Hygiene, Funk assumed the directorship of the Biochemistry and Hygiene of Nutrition Branch at the National School of Hygiene. Under Funk's guidance, Poland became the third European country to produce insulin. Kazimierz Funk passed away on November 19, 1967, in New York City, at the age of 83. His significant contributions to the fields of biochemistry and nutrition endure as a testament to his enduring impact on scientific understanding. This proposal aims to condense and emphasise Kazimierz Funk's diverse scientific interests and the various scientific teams and sites he collaborated with, which ultimately led to his groundbreaking discover.

Watercolor spreading in Bridget Riley's and Piet Mondrian's op-art placed in the context of recent watercolor studies.

The watercolor effect (WCE) is a striking visual illusion elicited by a bichromatic double contour, such as a light orange and a dark purple, hugging each other on a white background. Color assimilation, emanating from the lighter contour, spreads onto the enclosed surface area, thereby tinting it with a chromatic veil, not unlike a weak but real color. Map makers in the 17th century utilized the WCE to better demarcate the shape of adjoining states, while 20th-century artist Bridget Riley created illusory watercolor as part of her op-art. Today's visual scientists study the WCE for its filling-in properties and strong figure-ground segregation. This review emphasizes the superior strength of the WCE for grouping and figure-ground organization vis-à-vis the classical Gestalt factors of Max Wertheimer (1923), thereby inspiring a notion of form from induced color. It also demonstrates that a thin chromatic line, flanking the inside of a black Mondrian-type pattern, induces the WCE across a large white surface area. Phenomenological, psychophysical, and neurophysiological approaches are reviewed.

[Sir William Osler: facets of personality].

William Osler is one of the most honored and influential physicians in the English medicine late 19th early 20th century, who has made a great contribution on development of medical science and it's teaching. The scope of his multifaceted personality goes far beyond the characteristics of an outstanding doctor and scientist. The historical essay presents various aspects of the Osler's personality, highlighting his uniqueness as a doctor, teacher and philosopher.

Alexander Fleming: a second look.

In 1928, Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) identified penicillin, the world's first antibiotic. It was a chance discovery that could have easily been missed had Fleming not taken a second look at a contaminated Petri dish. The discovery of penicillin marked a profound turning point in history as it was the first time deadly infections such as bacterial pneumonia, sepsis, diphtheria, meningitis, and puerperal fever after childbirth could be cured, and it paved the way for the development of additional antibiotics. The Alexander Fleming Laboratory Museum, one of several London Museums of Health and Medicine, is a reconstruction of Fleming's laboratory in its original location at St. Mary's Hospital. As if stepping back in time, visitors gain a glimpse into the man, his bacteriology work, and the events surrounding this important finding. For those unable to travel to London, this article provides a brief narrative of the fascinating story.