Socioeconomic disparities associated with symptomatic Zika virus infections in pregnancy and congenital microcephaly: A spatiotemporal analysis from Goiânia, Brazil (2016 to 2020).

The Zika virus (ZIKV) epidemic, which was followed by an unprecedented outbreak of congenital microcephaly, emerged in Brazil unevenly, with apparent pockets of susceptibility. The present study aimed to detect high-risk areas for ZIKV infection and microcephaly in Goiania, a large city of 1.5 million inhabitants in Central-West Brazil. Using geocoded surveillance data from the Brazilian Information System for Notifiable Diseases (SINAN) and from the Public Health Event Registry (RESP-microcefalia), we analyzed the spatiotemporal distribution and socioeconomic indicators of laboratory confirmed (RT-PCR and/or anti-ZIKV IgM ELISA) symptomatic ZIKV infections among pregnant women and clinically confirmed microcephaly in neonates, from 2016 to 2020. We investigated temporal patterns by estimating the risk of symptomatic maternal ZIKV infections and microcephaly per 1000 live births per month. We examined the spatial distribution of maternal ZIKV infections and microcephaly cases across the 63 subdistricts of Goiania by manually plotting the geographical coordinates. We used spatial scan statistics estimated by discrete Poisson models to detect high clusters of maternal ZIKV infection and microcephaly and compared the distributions by socioeconomic indicators measured at the subdistrict level. In total, 382 lab-confirmed cases of maternal ZIKV infections, and 31 cases of microcephaly were registered in the city of Goiania. More than 90% of maternal cases were reported between 2016 and 2017. The highest incidence of ZIKV cases among pregnant women occurred between February and April 2016. A similar pattern was observed in the following year, although with a lower number of cases, indicating seasonality for ZIKV infection, during the local rainy season. Most congenital microcephaly cases occurred with a time-lag of 6 to 7 months after the peak of maternal ZIKV infection. The highest estimated incidence of maternal ZIKV infections and microcephaly were 39.3 and 2.5 cases per 1000 livebirths, respectively. Districts with better socioeconomic indicators and with higher proportions of self-identified white inhabitants were associated with lower risks of maternal ZIKV infection. Overall, the findings indicate heterogeneity in the spatiotemporal patterns of maternal ZIKV infections and microcephaly, which were correlated with seasonality and included a high-risk geographic cluster. Our findings identified geographically and socio-economically underprivileged groups that would benefit from targeted interventions to reduce exposure to vector-borne infections.

Social determinants associated with Zika virus infection in pregnant women.

This study aims to describe the sociodemographic determinants associated with exposure to Zika Virus (ZIKV) in pregnant women during the 2015-2016 epidemic in Salvador, Brazil. METHODS: We recruited women who gave birth between October 2015 and January 2016 to a cross-sectional study at a referral maternity hospital in Salvador, Brazil. We collected information on their demographic, socioeconomic, and clinical characteristics, and evaluated their ZIKV exposure using a plaque reduction neutralization test. Logistic regression was then used to assess the relationship between these social determinants and ZIKV exposure status. RESULTS: We included 469 pregnant women, of whom 61% had a positive ZIKV result. Multivariate analysis found that lower education (adjusted Prevalence Rate [aPR] 1.21; 95%CI 1.04-1.35) and food insecurity (aPR 1.17; 95%CI 1.01-1.30) were positively associated with ZIKV exposure. Additionally, age was negatively associated with the infection risk (aPR 0.99; 95%CI 0.97-0.998). CONCLUSION: Eve after controlling for age, differences in key social determinants, as education and food security, were associated with the risk of ZIKV infection among pregnant women in Brazil. Our findings elucidate risk factors that can be targeted by future interventions to reduce the impact of ZIKV infection in this vulnerable population.

A systematic examination of international funding flows for Ebola virus and Zika virus outbreaks 2014-2019: donors, recipients and funding purposes.

INTRODUCTION: There has been no systematic comparison of how the policy response to past infectious disease outbreaks and epidemics was funded. This study aims to collate and analyse funding for the Ebola epidemic and Zika outbreak between 2014 and 2019 in order to understand the shortcomings in funding reporting and suggest improvements. METHODS: Data were collected via a literature review and analysis of financial reporting databases, including both amounts donated and received. Funding information from three financial databases was analysed: Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation's Development Assistance for Health database, the Georgetown Infectious Disease Atlas and the United Nations Financial Tracking Service. A systematic literature search strategy was devised and applied to seven databases: MEDLINE, EMBASE, HMIC, Global Health, Scopus, Web of Science and EconLit. Funding information was extracted from articles meeting the eligibility criteria and measures were taken to avoid double counting. Funding was collated, then amounts and purposes were compared within, and between, data sources. RESULTS: Large differences between funding reported by different data sources, and variations in format and methodology, made it difficult to arrive at precise estimates of funding amounts and purpose. Total disbursements reported by the databases ranged from $2.5 to $3.2 billion for Ebola and $150-$180 million for Zika. Total funding reported in the literature is greater than reported in databases, suggesting that databases may either miss funding, or that literature sources overreport. Databases and literature disagreed on the main purpose of funding for socioeconomic recovery versus outbreak response. One of the few consistent findings across data sources and diseases is that the USA was the largest donor. CONCLUSION: Implementation of several recommendations would enable more effective mapping and deployment of outbreak funding for response activities relating to COVID-19 and future epidemics.

Climatic and socio-economic factors supporting the co-circulation of dengue, Zika and chikungunya in three different ecosystems in Colombia.

Dengue, Zika and chikungunya are diseases of global health significance caused by arboviruses and transmitted by the mosquito Aedes aegypti, which is of worldwide circulation. The arrival of the Zika and chikungunya viruses to South America increased the complexity of transmission and morbidity caused by these viruses co-circulating in the same vector mosquito species. Here we present an integrated analysis of the reported arbovirus cases between 2007 and 2017 and local climate and socio-economic profiles of three distinct Colombian municipalities (Bello, Cúcuta and Moniquirá). These locations were confirmed as three different ecosystems given their contrasted geographic, climatic and socio-economic profiles. Correlational analyses were conducted with both generalised linear models and generalised additive models for the geographical data. Average temperature, minimum temperature and wind speed were strongly correlated with disease incidence. The transmission of Zika during the 2016 epidemic appeared to decrease circulation of dengue in Cúcuta, an area of sustained high incidence of dengue. Socio-economic factors such as barriers to health and childhood services, inadequate sanitation and poor water supply suggested an unfavourable impact on the transmission of dengue, Zika and chikungunya in all three ecosystems. Socio-demographic influencers were also discussed including the influx of people to Cúcuta, fleeing political and economic instability from neighbouring Venezuela. Aedes aegypti is expanding its range and increasing the global threat of these diseases. It is therefore vital that we learn from the epidemiology of these arboviruses and translate it into an actionable local knowledge base. This is even more acute given the recent historical high of dengue cases in the Americas in 2019, preceding the COVID-19 pandemic, which is itself hampering mosquito control efforts.

Deficiência e transferência de renda diante da síndrome congênita do Zika vírus: um estudo sobre a Medida Provisória 894/2019 / Discapacidad y transferencia de renta ante el síndrome congénito del zika virus: un estudio sobre la medida provisional 894/2019 / Disability and income transfer in relation to congenital Zika syndrome: a study of provisional measure 894/2019

Desde 2015, a Síndrome Congênita do Zika Vírus (SCZV) marca o cenário brasileiro, extrapolando o campo da Saúde Pública com demandas da proteção social. Considerando a intersecção entre pobreza, deficiência e marcos da seguridade social, examina-se a Medida Provisória 894, que prevê renda mensal vitalícia para as crianças acometidas. Com o objetivo discutir o instrumento à luz dos marcos da seguridade social no recorte da transferência de renda não condicionada para as pessoas com deficiência (PcD) no Brasil, realizou-se um estudo qualitativo mediante análise de documentos públicos e revisão de literatura. As respostas estatais não produziram impacto na insuficiência de renda porque voltaram-se inicialmente para atender à situação emergencial, recorrendo às políticas preexistentes, e culminaram na substituição entre modalidades de transferência de renda - o Benefício de Prestação Continuada para Pensão Vitalícia -, revelando fragilização da proteção social integral. (AU)

Desde 2015 el Síndrome Congénito del Zika Virus (SCZV) marca el escenario brasileño, extrapolando el campo de la salud pública con demandas de la protección social. Considerando la intersección entre pobreza, discapacidad y marcos de la seguridad social, se examina la Medida Provisional 894 que prevé renta mensual vitalicia para los niños afectados. Con el objetivo de discutir el instrumento a la luz de los marcos de la seguridad social en el recorte de la transferencia de renta no condicionada para las Personas con Discapacidad (PcD) en Brasil, se realizó un estudio cualitativo mediante análisis de documentos públicos y revisión de literatura. Las respuestas estatales no causaron impacto en la insuficiencia de renta porque inicialmente se enfocaron para atender la situación de emergencia recurriendo a las políticas preexistentes y que culminaron en la substitución entre modalidades de transferencia de renta, el Beneficio de Prestación Continua para Pensión Vitalicia, revelando la fragilización de la protección social integral. (AU)

Since 2015, Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS) has been a feature of the Brazilian context and has moved beyond public health to demands for social protection. Given the intersection between poverty, disability and the social security framework, we examine Provisional Measure 894, which provides a lifetime monthly income for affected children. We conduct a qualitative study, analysing public documents and reviewing the literature, in order to discuss this instrument in the light of social security frameworks for unconditional cash transfers for People with Disabilities (PwD) in Brazil. State responses did not have an impact on income insufficiencies, since they were initially intended to respond to emergency situations and referred to pre-existing policies; this culminated in an income transfer modality, the Continuous Cash Benefit, being replaced by a Lifetime Pension, demonstrating a weakening of comprehensive social protection. (AU)

Examining the Association of Socioeconomic Position with Microcephaly and Delayed Childhood Neurodevelopment among Children with Prenatal Zika Virus Exposure.

Increased rates of Zika virus have been identified in economically deprived areas in Brazil at the population level; yet, the implications of the interaction between socioeconomic position and prenatal Zika virus exposure on adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes remains insufficiently evaluated at the individual level. Using data collected between September 2015 and September 2019 from 163 children with qRT-PCR and/or IgM-confirmed prenatal exposure to Zika virus participating in a prospective cohort study in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (NCT03255369), this study evaluated the relationships of socioeconomic indicators with microcephaly at birth and Bayley-III neurodevelopmental scores during the early life course. Adjusted logistic regression models indicated increased odds of microcephaly in children born to families with lower household income (OR, 95% CI: 3.85, 1.43 to 10.37) and higher household crowding (OR, 95% CI: 1.83, 1.16 to 2.91), while maternal secondary and higher education appeared to have a protective effect for microcephaly compared to primary education (OR, 95% CI: 0.33, 0.11 to 0.98 and 0.10, 0.03 to 0.36, respectively). Consistent with these findings, adjusted linear regression models indicated lower composite language (-10.78, 95% CI: -19.87 to -1.69), motor (-10.45, 95% CI: -19.22 to -1.69), and cognitive (-17.20, 95% CI: -26.13 to -8.28) scores in children whose families participated in the Bolsa Família social protection programme. As such, the results from this investigation further emphasise the detrimental effects of childhood disadvantage on human health and development by providing novel evidence on the link between individual level socioeconomic indicators and microcephaly and delayed early life neurodevelopment following prenatal Zika virus exposure.

[Family dynamics of children with congenital Zika syndrome in Petrolina, Pernambuco State, Brazil]. / Dinâmica familiar de criança com a síndrome congênita do Zika vírus no Município de Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brasil.

Brazil witnessed a significant increase in the number of cases of microcephaly in infants born in the second semester of 2015. There were 162 cases in 2014, increasing to 1,608 in 2015. The condition is associated with impairments in various bodily functions, leading to limitations in infant development. This study aims to analyze the family dynamics of children with congenital Zika syndrome (CZS) in Petrolina, Pernambuco State. Data collection used consultation in patient charts and interviews with parents using a semi-structured script. A qualitative/quantitative approach was used, including all of the mothers and other family members accompanying children with CZS at the referral unit, the Amália Granja Alencar Clinic. Discourse analysis applied the content analysis technique. The results in the category "changes in daily living" for families of children with CZS were grouped into three subcategories: activities of daily living (ADL), financial and occupational impacts associated with the CZS diagnosis, and changes in the marital relationship after the diagnosis. The study showed that care for the child with CZS is mostly concentrated in women in the family, and that the diagnosis leads to significant changes in the family dynamics, with the child's extensive dependence on the caregiver, increasing expenses, and work absenteeism.

No Brasil, houve aumento no número de casos de microcefalia detectados em crianças nascidas no segundo semestre de 2015. Esses casos tiveram incremento significativo no país. Em 2014, foram 162 ocorrências, aumentando, em 2015, para 1.608. Essa condição está associada a vários acometimentos nas funções do organismo, levando a limitações no desenvolvimento infantil. Esta pesquisa objetiva analisar a dinâmica familiar de criança com a síndrome congênita associada ao Zika vírus (SCZV) no Município de Petrolina, Pernambuco. Como instrumento de coleta, utilizou-se a consulta ao prontuário e a realização de entrevista por meio de roteiro semiestruturado. Empregou-se abordagem quali-quantitativa, envolvendo a totalidade das mães e dos familiares que acompanhavam as crianças com a SCZV na unidade de saúde de referência, AME Amália Granja Alencar. Na análise dos discursos, aplicou-se a técnica de análise de conteúdo. Os resultados relacionados à categoria mudanças da vida diária de familiares de criança com a SCZV foram agrupados em três subcategorias: atividade da vida diária (AVD); impactos financeiros e no trabalho associados à descoberta da SCZV; e mudança na relação conjugal após a descoberta da SCZV. A pesquisa demonstrou majoritariamente que o cuidado da criança com SCZV está centrado na figura feminina e que o diagnóstico traz significativas mudanças na dinâmica familiar, como maior dependência da criança ao cuidador, aumento de gastos financeiros e absenteísmo no trabalho.

En Brasil, se produjo un aumento en el número de casos de microcefalia detectada en niños nacidos en el segundo semestre de 2015. Estos casos sufrieron un incremento significativo en el país. En 2014, fueron 162 incidencias, aumentando, en 2015, hasta 1.608. Esta enfermedad está asociada con varias alteraciones en las funciones del organismo, provocando limitaciones en el desarrollo infantil. El objetivo de esta investigación fue analizar la dinámica familiar de niños con el síndrome congénito asociado al virus Zika (SCZ) en el municipio de Petrolina, Pernambuco. Como instrumento de recogida, se realizaron consultas del historial clínico, así como una entrevista semiestructurada. Se empleó un abordaje cuali-cuantitativo, implicando a la totalidad de las madres y de los familiares que acompañaban a los niños con el SCZ en la unidad de salud de referencia, AME Amália Granja Alencar. En el análisis de los discursos se aplicó la técnica de análisis de contenido. Los resultados relacionados con la categoría cambios de la vida diaria de familiares del niño con el SCZ se agruparon en tres subcategorías: actividad de la vida diaria (AVD), impactos financieros y en el trabajo asociados al descubrimiento del SCZ y cambios en la relación conyugal tras el descubrimiento del SCZ. La investigación demostró que mayoritariamente el cuidado del niño con SCZ está centrado en la figura femenina, y que el diagnóstico conlleva significativos cambios en la dinámica familiar, como una mayor dependencia del niño del cuidador, aumento de gastos financieros y absentismo en el trabajo.

The Potential Economic Value of a Zika Vaccine for a Woman of Childbearing Age.

INTRODUCTION: With Zika vaccine candidates under development and women of childbearing age being the primary target population, now is the time to map the vaccine (e.g., efficacy and duration of protection) and vaccination (e.g., cost) characteristic thresholds at which vaccination becomes cost effective, highly cost effective, and cost saving. METHODS: A Markov model was developed (to represent 2019 circumstances, US$ and INT$, Region of the Americas) to simulate a woman of childbearing age and the potential risk and clinical course of a Zika infection. RESULTS: Compared with no vaccination, vaccination was cost effective (incremental cost-effectiveness ratio: US$1,254-$82,900/disability-adjusted life years averted) when the risk of infection was ≥0.05%-0.08% (varying with country income), vaccine efficacy was ≥25%, and vaccination cost was US$1-$7,500 (INT$5-$10,000 depending on country income level). Vaccination was dominant (i.e., saved costs and provided beneficial health effects) when the infection risk was ≥0.1% for a vaccine efficacy ≥75% and when the infection risk was ≥0.5% for a vaccine efficacy ≥25%, for scenarios where vaccination conferred a 1-year duration of protection and cost ≤$200. In some cases, the vaccine was cost effective when the risk was as low as 0.015%, the cost was as high as $7,500 (INT$10,000), the efficacy was as low as 25%, and the duration of protection was 1 year. CONCLUSIONS: The thresholds at which vaccination becomes cost effective and cost saving can provide targets for Zika vaccine development and implementation.

An investigation into the knowledge, perceptions and role of personal protective technologies in Zika prevention in Colombia.

BACKGROUND: Arboviruses transmitted by day-biting Aedes mosquitoes are a major public health concern. With the challenges inherent in arbovirus vaccine and therapeutics development, vector control and bite prevention strategies are among the limited options available for immediate intervention. Bite prevention through personal protective technologies (PPT), such as topical mosquito repellents or repellent-impregnated clothing, may help to decrease biting rates and, therefore, the risk of disease in groups most susceptible to adverse outcomes from Zika virus. However, achieving high uptake and compliance with PPT can be challenging. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: To gain an insight into the knowledge and concerns of pregnant women surrounding Zika and their opinions regarding PPT, particularly repellent clothing, a focus group study was carried out with pregnant women, women of reproductive age, and semi-structured interviews with their male partners in two cities in Colombia. The discussions revealed shortfalls in basic knowledge of Zika virus, with several pregnant participants reporting being unaware of the potential for Zika-related congenital malformations. Although participants generally considered Zika to be a significant personal threat, most rated it as less of a concern than dengue or diarrheal diseases. Overall, repellent clothing and other forms of PPT were viewed as effective, although some participants expressed concerns over the high costs of repellents, and safety fears of regular contact with repellent chemicals, which they perceived as potentially harmful. Plant-derived repellents were considered to be safer than synthetic chemical repellents. Discussions also highlighted that health centers were the preferred source of information on bite-reduction. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Achieving high uptake and compliance with PPT in populations most at risk of adverse outcomes from Zika infection requires engaging key users in open dialogue to identify and address any practical issues regarding PPT use, and concerns over safety. The findings presented here suggest that educational campaigns should strongly emphasize the risks associated with Zika during pregnancy, and discuss safety profiles of approved synthetic repellents and the availability of EPA-approved plant-based repellents. In addition, the economic and political context should be a major consideration when evaluating personal mosquito-repellent strategies.

Dinâmica familiar de criança com a síndrome congênita do Zika vírus no Município de Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brasil / Family dynamics of children with congenital Zika syndrome in Petrolina, Pernambuco State, Brazil / Dinámica familiar de niños afectados por el síndrome congénito del virus Zika, municipio de Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brasil

No Brasil, houve aumento no número de casos de microcefalia detectados em crianças nascidas no segundo semestre de 2015. Esses casos tiveram incremento significativo no país. Em 2014, foram 162 ocorrências, aumentando, em 2015, para 1.608. Essa condição está associada a vários acometimentos nas funções do organismo, levando a limitações no desenvolvimento infantil. Esta pesquisa objetiva analisar a dinâmica familiar de criança com a síndrome congênita associada ao Zika vírus (SCZV) no Município de Petrolina, Pernambuco. Como instrumento de coleta, utilizou-se a consulta ao prontuário e a realização de entrevista por meio de roteiro semiestruturado. Empregou-se abordagem quali-quantitativa, envolvendo a totalidade das mães e dos familiares que acompanhavam as crianças com a SCZV na unidade de saúde de referência, AME Amália Granja Alencar. Na análise dos discursos, aplicou-se a técnica de análise de conteúdo. Os resultados relacionados à categoria mudanças da vida diária de familiares de criança com a SCZV foram agrupados em três subcategorias: atividade da vida diária (AVD); impactos financeiros e no trabalho associados à descoberta da SCZV; e mudança na relação conjugal após a descoberta da SCZV. A pesquisa demonstrou majoritariamente que o cuidado da criança com SCZV está centrado na figura feminina e que o diagnóstico traz significativas mudanças na dinâmica familiar, como maior dependência da criança ao cuidador, aumento de gastos financeiros e absenteísmo no trabalho.

Brazil witnessed a significant increase in the number of cases of microcephaly in infants born in the second semester of 2015. There were 162 cases in 2014, increasing to 1,608 in 2015. The condition is associated with impairments in various bodily functions, leading to limitations in infant development. This study aims to analyze the family dynamics of children with congenital Zika syndrome (CZS) in Petrolina, Pernambuco State. Data collection used consultation in patient charts and interviews with parents using a semi-structured script. A qualitative/quantitative approach was used, including all of the mothers and other family members accompanying children with CZS at the referral unit, the Amália Granja Alencar Clinic. Discourse analysis applied the content analysis technique. The results in the category "changes in daily living" for families of children with CZS were grouped into three subcategories: activities of daily living (ADL), financial and occupational impacts associated with the CZS diagnosis, and changes in the marital relationship after the diagnosis. The study showed that care for the child with CZS is mostly concentrated in women in the family, and that the diagnosis leads to significant changes in the family dynamics, with the child's extensive dependence on the caregiver, increasing expenses, and work absenteeism.

En Brasil, se produjo un aumento en el número de casos de microcefalia detectada en niños nacidos en el segundo semestre de 2015. Estos casos sufrieron un incremento significativo en el país. En 2014, fueron 162 incidencias, aumentando, en 2015, hasta 1.608. Esta enfermedad está asociada con varias alteraciones en las funciones del organismo, provocando limitaciones en el desarrollo infantil. El objetivo de esta investigación fue analizar la dinámica familiar de niños con el síndrome congénito asociado al virus Zika (SCZ) en el municipio de Petrolina, Pernambuco. Como instrumento de recogida, se realizaron consultas del historial clínico, así como una entrevista semiestructurada. Se empleó un abordaje cuali-cuantitativo, implicando a la totalidad de las madres y de los familiares que acompañaban a los niños con el SCZ en la unidad de salud de referencia, AME Amália Granja Alencar. En el análisis de los discursos se aplicó la técnica de análisis de contenido. Los resultados relacionados con la categoría cambios de la vida diaria de familiares del niño con el SCZ se agruparon en tres subcategorías: actividad de la vida diaria (AVD), impactos financieros y en el trabajo asociados al descubrimiento del SCZ y cambios en la relación conyugal tras el descubrimiento del SCZ. La investigación demostró que mayoritariamente el cuidado del niño con SCZ está centrado en la figura femenina, y que el diagnóstico conlleva significativos cambios en la dinámica familiar, como una mayor dependencia del niño del cuidador, aumento de gastos financieros y absentismo en el trabajo.

Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with Zika virus infection in Brazil: a cost-of-illness study.

BACKGROUND: Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is a serious, acute paralytic neuropathy of autoimmune aetiology, usually associated with a previous infection. The current study aims to estimate the costs of GBS associated with Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in Brazil. METHODS: A cost-of-illness study was conducted from the perspective of the Brazilian public health system (Sistema Único de Saúde [SUS]) and Brazilian society for the year 2016. Direct and indirect costs were estimated by a mixed macrocosting and microcosting approach. RESULTS: The total cost of ZIKV-associated GBS in Brazil was US$11 997 225.85, consisting of the costs of symptomatic ZIKV infection before onset of GBS (direct costs US$2011.51, indirect costs US$19 780.53) and the costs that followed development of GBS (direct costs US$4 722 980.89, indirect costs US$7 252 452.92). The cost of treatment with human immunoglobulin (US$3 263 210.50) and the cost of productivity losses associated with potential years of working life lost due to early mortality (US$4 398 551.72) were particularly noteworthy. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that ZIKV-associated GBS is costly to Brazil, especially due to productivity losses and hospitalization. This highlights the importance of investing in the prevention of ZIKV infection and in the care of patients with GBS.

Depressive Symptoms and Care Demands Among Primary Caregivers of Young Children with Evidence of Congenital Zika Virus Infection in Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: Evidence suggests that caring for a child with special health care needs can affect many domains of family life, including caregiver mental health. However, few studies have examined these outcomes among families impacted by the Zika virus (ZIKV). This study examines depressive symptom severity and care demands among primary caregivers of children, aged 15 to 26 months, with evidence of congenital Zika virus infection (ZVI). METHODS: A sample of primary caregivers of children with evidence of congenital ZVI in northeastern Brazil (n = 150) reported on depressive symptoms, care demands, and their children's development. Children were categorized into groups according to their developmental delay status. Bivariate analyses were run to test for differences between groups. A path analysis model was used to examine the indirect effects of developmental delay on depressive symptoms through economic challenges and time spent providing health care at home and whether these associations varied by child care support. RESULTS: Compared to primary caregivers of children without developmental delay, primary caregivers of children with developmental delay had higher depression scores (p = 0.002), reported more economic (p < 0.001) and child care (p < 0.001) challenges, and spent more time providing health care at home (p < 0.001). Among primary caregivers who did not have child care support, developmental delay had a significant indirect effect on depressive symptoms through economic challenges but not through time spent providing health care at home. CONCLUSION: For families impacted by the ZIKV outbreak in Brazil, economic and child care challenges may be associated with primary caregiver mental health.

Microcephaly inpatient hospitalization and potential Zika outbreak in Texas: A cost and predicted economic burden analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Estimate inpatient hospitalization costs for patients with microcephaly, and predict cost increases due to a potential Zika virus outbreak. METHODS: We identified Texas-wide inpatient hospitalization discharge records (2008-2015), for newborns and non-newborns with microcephaly. We estimated the cost of each hospitalization by applying cost-to-charge ratios on the actual hospitalization charge. For comparison, newborn visits for patients without microcephaly were also identified, and hospital costs were compared between patients with and without microcephaly. We estimated costs for microcephaly during the first year of life following a Zika outbreak (possible 1-50% increase in birth prevalence) in Texas. RESULTS: There were 8005 microcephaly hospitalizations ($203,899,042; total cost). The median admission cost for newborns with microcephaly (N = 1393) was higher compared to those without microcephaly ($6751 vs $725, p < 0.001). Microcephaly hospitalizations of newborns had a lower median cost compared to non-newborns ($6751 vs $9754, p < 0.001). Based on these observed hospitalization costs, we estimated that a potential Zika virus outbreak in Texas could result in an additional $1-6 million per year for hospitalizations. CONCLUSION: Hospitalizations of patients with microcephaly are associated with high costs. An increase in microcephaly prevalence due to a Zika outbreak in Texas could have a considerable impact on health care costs.

Consumer willingness to pay for a hypothetical Zika vaccine in Brazil and the implications.

ABSTRACT  Background: Zika virus is a newly emerging infection, associated with increasingly large outbreaks especially in tropical countries such as Brazil. A future Zika vaccine can contribute to decreasing the number of cases and associated complications. Information about consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) for a hypothetical Zika vaccine can help price setting discussions in the future in Brazil, starting with the private market. METHODS: A cross-sectional study conducted among residents of Minas Gerais, Brazil, regarding their WTP for a hypothetical Zika Vaccine. The mean effective protection was 80%, with the possibility of some local and systemic side- effects. RESULTS: 517 people were interviewed. However, 28 would not be vaccinated even if the vaccine was free. Most of the resultant interviewees (489) were female (58.2%), had completed high school (49.7%), were employed (71.2%), had private health insurance (52.7%), and did not have Zika (96.9%). The median individual maximum WTP for this hypothetical Zika vaccine (one dose) was US$31.34 (BRL100.00). CONCLUSION: Such discussions regarding WTP can contribute to decision-making about prices once a Zika vaccine becomes available in Brazil alongside other ongoing programs to control the virus.

Zika virus diagnosis: challenges and solutions.

BACKGROUND: Since its sudden appearance and link to microcephaly in 2015, the number of PubMed references for Zika virus (ZIKV) has risen from 181 to 5163, at time of writing, with a vast proportion focused on the consequences of ZIKV infection during pregnancy. This level of attention underlies increased demand for sensitive and specific diagnostic tools able to assess risk to an unborn child, as well as to understand the dynamics and consequences of viral persistence. AIM: Review the expanding knowledge on ZIKV persistence and diagnostic challenges and summarize current advancements in detection. SOURCES: Peer-reviewed articles based on the search terms 'Zika' and 'ZIKV' combined with the terms 'diagnostics' 'point-of-care diagnostics' 'viral load' 'persistence' 'detection' 'treatment' 'nucleic acid amplification testing' 'microsphere' 'PVRT' 'RVNT' 'RT-LAMP' 'NASBA' SIBA' 'RPA' 'SHERLOCK' 'ELISA', and 'TMA' as well as laboratory experience of the authors. CONTENT: Topics covered include the emergence of the ZIKV epidemic, pathogenesis of ZIKV infection, the nature of ZIKV persistence, complications in serological diagnosis, tried and novel diagnostic laboratory techniques, and a recent accounting of point-of-care testing (POCT) methods. IMPLICATIONS: Surveillance and research in the case of ZIKV has shifted into a more rapid and coordinated worldwide directive than has occurred with most viral epidemics to date. The particular concentration of outbreaks in resource-limited settings increases the need for simple assays capable of reliable, inexpensive, high-throughput ZIKV diagnosis. This review serves to both catalogue current diagnostic options and consider their suitability at point-of-care.

Mosquito control practices and perceptions: An analysis of economic stakeholders during the Zika epidemic in Belize, Central America.

The tourist-based economy of Belize, a tropical hub for eco-tourism, is at high risk to be disproportionately impacted by established and emerging mosquito-borne diseases such as Zika. An online survey was used to probe economic stakeholders working in the Belize tourism industry about their mosquito control practices and perceptions. Responses demonstrated that the respondents have good working knowledge of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne illnesses. Most businesses surveyed engage in some means of mosquito control, either through larval source reduction or use of insecticides on the premises. Larvicide use was significantly correlated with a general willingness to use insecticides, as well as belief that treatment of water will reduce mosquito densities and disease transmission. A majority of the respondents agreed that they would be interested in buying a new larvicide to be used on the business premises if it were shown to be safe and effective. The safety of mosquito control products for humans, animals, plants, and the environment in general, followed by product effectiveness, are the most critical determinants of mosquito control purchasing decisions. A majority of respondents agreed that control of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne illnesses is central to the success of their tourist-based industry. Respondents expressed significant concern that the Zika epidemic was over-sensationalized by the media, and that this negatively impacted their livelihoods. The respondents, many of whom are associated with eco/sustainable businesses, also voiced concerns that chemical pesticides could have a negative impact on human health and the environment and expressed a desire for balance between effective mosquito control and preservation of the rich biodiversity of Belize. This study provided a framework for further engagement activities in Belize and other Caribbean nations, uncovered both concerns and support for emerging mosquito control technologies, and revealed opportunities for further debate and educational outreach efforts.

Cost-effectiveness of a potential Zika vaccine candidate: a case study for Colombia.

BACKGROUND: A number of Zika vaccine platforms are currently being investigated, some of which have entered clinical trials. We sought to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of a potential Zika vaccine candidate under the WHO Vaccine Target Product Profile for outbreak response, prioritizing women of reproductive age to prevent microcephaly and other neurological disorders. METHODS: Using an agent-based simulation model of ZIKV transmission dynamics in a Colombian population setting, we conducted cost-effectiveness analysis with and without pre-existing herd immunity. The model was parameterized with estimates associated with ZIKV infection, risks of microcephaly in different trimesters, direct medical costs, and vaccination costs. We assumed that a single dose of vaccine provides a protection efficacy in the range 60% to 90% against infection. Cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted from a government perspective. RESULTS: Under a favorable scenario when the reproduction number is relatively low (R0 = 2.2) and the relative transmissibility of asymptomatic infection is 10% compared with symptomatic infection, a vaccine is cost-saving (with negative incremental cost-effective ratio; ICER) for vaccination costs up to US$6 per individual without herd immunity, and up to US$4 per individual with 8% herd immunity. For positive ICER values, vaccination is highly cost-effective for vaccination costs up to US$10 (US$7) in the respective scenarios with the willingness-to-pay of US$6610 per disability-adjusted life-year, corresponding to the average per capita GDP of Colombia between 2013 and 2017. Our results indicate that the effect of other control measures targeted to reduce ZIKV transmission decreases the range of vaccination costs for cost-effectiveness due to reduced returns of vaccine-induced herd immunity. In all scenarios investigated, the median reduction of microcephaly exceeded 64% with vaccination. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that a Zika vaccine with protection efficacy as low as 60% could significantly reduce the incidence of microcephaly. From a government perspective, Zika vaccination is highly cost-effective, and even cost-saving in Colombia if vaccination costs per individual is sufficiently low. Efficacy data from clinical trials and number of vaccine doses will be important requirements in future studies to refine our estimates, and conduct similar studies in other at-risk populations.

Unintended consequences and the paradox of control: Management of emerging pathogens with age-specific virulence.

We project forward total Zika virus disease (ZVD) under varying hazards of infection and consider how the age distribution of disease burden varies between these scenarios. Pathogens with age structured disease outcomes, such as rubella and Zika virus, require that management decisions consider their impact not only on total disease incidence but also on distribution of disease burden within a population. Some situations exhibit a "paradox of control" in which reductions of overall transmission decrease the total incidence but increase the incidence of severe disease. This happens because of corresponding increases in the average age of infection. Beginning with the current population structure and demographic rates of Brazil, we project forward total ZVD burden as measured by cases occurring in pregnant women and document the scenarios under which a paradox of control for ZVD management emerges. We conclude that while a paradox of control can occur for ZVD, the higher total costs from increasing the average age of infection will only be realized after several decades and vanish under conservative discounting of future costs. This indicates that managers faced with an emerging pathogen are justified to prioritize current disease incidence over potential increases in severe disease outcomes in the endemic state.