International Medical Graduates and the Physician Workforce.

Importance: Physician shortages and the geographic maldistribution of general and specialist physicians impair health care delivery and worsen health inequity in the US. International medical graduates (IMGs) represent a potential solution given their ready supply. Observations: Despite extensive clinical experience, evidence of competence, and willingness to practice in underserved communities, IMGs experience multiple barriers to entry in the US, including the immigration process, the pathways available for certification and licensing, and institutional reluctance to consider non-US-trained candidates. International medical graduates applying to postgraduate training programs compare favorably with US-trained candidates in terms of clinical experience, prior formal postgraduate training, and research, but have higher application withdrawal rates and significantly lower residency and fellowship match rates, a disparity that may be exacerbated by the recent elimination of objective performance metrics, such as the US Medical Licensing Examination Step 1 score. Once legally in the US, IMGs encounter additional obstacles to board eligibility, research funding, and career progression. Conclusions and Relevance: International medical graduates offer a viable and available solution to bridge the domestic physician supply gap, while improving workforce diversity and meaningfully addressing the public health implications of geographic maldistribution of general and specialist physicians, without disrupting existing physician stature and salaries. The US remains unable to integrate IMGs until systematic policy changes at the national level are implemented.

Training, Migration and Retention of Doctors: Is Ireland a Danaides' Jar? Comment on "Doctor Retention: A Cross-sectional Study of How Ireland Has Been Losing the Battle".

In a context of global shortage of doctors, Ireland is in a paradoxical situation: the country trained a lot of medical students, native or foreign, but has difficulties to retain them. The paper of Brugha and his colleagues analyzes junior doctors' migration intentions, the reasons they leave, the likelihood of them returning and the characteristics of those who plan to emigrate. Results show determinants of junior doctor's emigration and may be useful to better calibrate the doctors' retention strategy of Ireland.

African Physician Migration to High-Income Nations: Diverse Motives to Emigrate ("We Are not Florence Nightingale") or Stay in Africa ("There Is No Place Like Home") Comment on "Doctor Retention: A Cross-sectional Study of How Ireland Has Been Losing the Battle".

Research in assessing the global and asymmetric flows of health workers in general, and international medical graduates in particular, is fraught with controversy. The complex goal of improving health status of the citizens of home nations while ensuring the right of health workers to migrate generates policy discussions and decisions that often are not adequately informed by evidence. In times of global public health crises like the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) global pandemic, the need for equitable distribution and adequate training of health workers globally becomes even more pressing. Brugha et al report suboptimal training and working conditions among Irish and foreign medical doctors practicing in Ireland, while predicting large-scale outward migration. We comment on health personnel migration and retention based on our own experience in this area of research. Drawing from our examination of medical migration dynamics from sub-Saharan Africa, we argue for greater consideration of health workforce retention in research and policy related to resource-limited settings. The right to health suggests the need to retain healthcare providers whose education was typically subsidized by the home nation. The right to migrate may conflict with the right to health. Hence, a deeper understanding is needed as to healthcare worker motives based on interactions of psychosocial processes, economic and material determinants, and quality of work environments.

International Medical Graduates in the Pediatric Workforce in the United States.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: To describe the supply, distribution, and characteristics of international medical graduates (IMGs) in pediatrics who provide patient care in the United States. METHODS: Cross-sectional study, combining data from the 2019 Physician Masterfile of the American Medical Association and the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates database. RESULTS: In total, 92 806 pediatric physicians were identified, comprising 9.4% of the entire US physician workforce. Over half are general pediatricians. IMGs account for 23.2% of all general pediatricians and pediatric subspecialists. Of all IMGs in pediatrics, 22.1% or 4775 are US citizens who obtained their medical degree outside the United States or Canada, and 15.4% (3246) attended medical school in the Caribbean. Fifteen non-US medical schools account for 29.9% of IMGs currently in active practice in pediatrics in the United States. IMGs are less likely to work in group practice or hospital-based practice and are more likely to be employed in solo practice (compared with US medical school graduates). CONCLUSIONS: With this study, we provide an overview of the pediatric workforce, quantifying the contribution of IMGs. Many IMGs are US citizens who attend medical school abroad and return to the United States for postgraduate training. Several factors, including the number of residency training positions, could affect future numbers of IMGs entering the United States. Longitudinal studies are needed to better understand the implications that workforce composition and distribution may have for the care of pediatric patients.

Health professional mobility in the WHO European Region and the WHO Global Code of Practice: data from the joint OECD/EUROSTAT/WHO-Europe questionnaire.

WHO Member States adopted the Global Code of Practice on the International Recruitment of Health Personnel 10 years ago. This study assesses adherence with the Code's principles and its continuing relevance in the WHO Europe region with regards to international recruitment of health workers. Data from the joint OECD/EUROSTAT/WHO-Europe questionnaire from 2010 to 2018 are analyzed to determine trends in intra- and inter-regional mobility of foreign-trained doctors and nurses working in case study destination countries in Europe. In 2018, foreign-trained doctors and nurses comprised over a quarter of the physician workforce and 5% of the nursing workforce in five of eight and four of five case study countries, respectively. Since 2010, the proportion of foreign-trained nurses and doctors has risen faster than domestically trained professionals, with increased mobility driven by rising East-West and South-North intra-European migration, especially within the European Union. The number of nurses trained in developing countries but practising in case study countries declined by 26%. Although the number of doctors increased by 27%, this was driven by arrivals from countries experiencing conflict and volatility, suggesting countries generally are increasingly adhering to the Code's principles on ethical recruitment. To support ethical recruitment practices and sustainable workforce development in the region, data collection and monitoring on health worker mobility should be improved.

Prevalence of International Medical Graduates From Muslim-Majority Nations in the US Physician Workforce From 2009 to 2019.

Importance: Historically, the US physician workforce has included a large number of international medical graduates (IMGs). Recent US immigration policies may affect the inflow of IMGs, particularly those who are citizens of Muslim-majority nations. Objectives: To provide an overview of the characteristics of IMGs from Muslim-majority nations, including their contributions to the US physician workforce, and to describe trends in the number of applications for certification to the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates between 2019 and 2018, both overall and for citizens of Muslim-majority nations. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study, which included 1 065 606 US physicians listed in the 2019 American Medical Association Physician Masterfile and 156 017 applicants to the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates certification process between 2009 and 2018, used a repeated cross-sectional study design to review the available data, including country of medical school attended, citizenship when entering medical school, and career information, such as present employment, specialty, and type of practice. Exposures: Country of citizenship when entering medical school. Main Outcomes and Measures: Physician counts and demographic information from the 2019 American Medical Association Physician Masterfile and applicant data from the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates from 2009 to 2018. Results: Of 1 065 606 physicians in the American Medical Association Physician Masterfile, 263 029 (24.7%) were IMGs, of whom 48 354 were citizens of Muslim-majority countries at time of entry to medical school, representing 18.4% of all IMGs. Overall, 1 in 22 physicians in the US was an IMG from a Muslim-majority nation, representing 4.5% of the total US physician workforce. More than half of IMGs from Muslim-majority nations (24 491 [50.6%]) come from 3 countries: Pakistan (14 352 [29.7%]), Iran (5288 [10.9%]), and Egypt (4851 [10.0%]). The most prevalent specialties include internal medicine (10 934 [23.6%]), family medicine (3430 [7.5%]), pediatrics (2767 [5.9%]), and psychiatry (2251 [4.8%]), with 18 229 (38.1%) practicing in primary care specialties. The number of applicants for Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates certification from Muslim-majority countries increased from 2009 (3227 applicants) to 2015 (4244 applicants), then decreased by 2.1% in 2016 to 4254 applicants, 4.3% in 2017 to 4073 applicants, and 11.5% in 2018 to 3604 applicants. Much of this decrease could be attributed to fewer citizens from Pakistan (1042 applicants in 2015 to 919 applicants in 2018), Egypt (493 applicants in 2015 to 309 applicants in 2018), Iran (281 applicants in 2015 to 182 applicants in 2018), and Saudi Arabia (337 applicants in 2015 to 163 applicants in 2018) applying for certification. Conclusions and Relevance: Based on the findings of this study, the number of ECFMG applicants from Muslim-majority countries decreased from 2015 to 2018. The US physician workforce will continue to rely on IMGs for some time to come. To the extent that citizens from some countries no longer seek residency positions in the US, gaps in the physician workforce could widen.

Geographic Distribution of International Medical Graduate Residents in U.S. Neurosurgery Training Programs.

BACKGROUND: Neurosurgery residency in the United States is highly sought after by many international medical graduates (IMGs), and the geographic distribution of IMG candidates who have successfully matched has not been quantitatively explored to date. The aim of this study was to highlight the countries in which successfully matched IMG residents obtained their medical degrees and the states of their respective residency destinations. METHODS: All available resident lists of approved neurosurgical residency programs within the United States with at least 7 years of history were reviewed for IMGs in the most currently updated rosters. Demographic and geographic characteristics were summarized. RESULTS: A total of 1393 current neurosurgical residents in U.S. residency programs were identified from 99 programs across 39 states. Of 1393 residents, 87 were IMGs (6%). The IMG contingent originated from 39 countries, the most common of which was Lebanon (n = 14/87 [16%]). The Middle East was the most represented geographic region (n = 23/87 [26%]). The states with the highest number of IMGs were Kentucky, New York, and Texas (all n = 7/87 [8%]). CONCLUSIONS: IMGs constitute a small but appreciable portion of current neurosurgical residents in U.S. training programs. Particular countries have contributed more IMGs to neurosurgical programs than others, and particular states have higher counts and proportions of IMG residents than others. These outcomes are not geographically homogeneous, and the mechanisms by which IMG applicants successfully match to U.S. neurosurgery programs require more biographic granularity to elucidate.

Where are they working? A case study of twenty Cuban-trained South African doctors.

BACKGROUND: The year 2017 marked the 21st anniversary of the South African Cuban Medical Collaboration (SACMC) programme that offers disadvantaged South African (SA) students an opportunity for medical training in Cuba. Graduates are expected to return to practice at a primary care level in rural communities; however, little is known about the professional trajectories and career choices of graduates from the programme. AIM: This study explored the reasons why students enrolled in the programme, their professional and career choices as graduates and their career intentions. SETTING: The study setting was the whole of SA although participants were primarily drawn from KwaZulu-Natal. METHODS: An exploratory, qualitative case study used a purposive sampling strategy to gather data through semi-structured interviews from participants. RESULTS: Graduates (N = 20) of the SACMC programme were all practicing in local SA settings. Participants preferred the SACMC programme as it offered them a full scholarship for medical training. Nineteen doctors had fulfilled their obligation to work in rural areas. Thirteen doctors are engaged in primary healthcare practice, either as private practice generalists or as public service medical officers. Three doctors had completed specialty training: one doctor was training towards specialisation, one doctor was employed at national government and two doctors were employed as medical managers. At the time of the study, 11 doctors were practicing in rural locations and 19 had indicated a long-term intention to work and live within South Africa. CONCLUSION: The participants of this study who graduated from the SACMC programme are fulfilling their obligations in rural communities. They all intend to contribute to the SA medical workforce in the long-term.

Supply, distribution and characteristics of international medical graduates in family medicine in the United States: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: To describe the supply, distribution, and characteristics of international medical graduates (IMGs) in family medicine who provide patient care in the U.S. METHODS: A cross-sectional study design, using descriptive statistics on combined data from the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates and the American Medical Association, including medical school attended, country of medical school, and citizenship when entering medical school. RESULTS: In total, 118,817 physicians in family medicine were identified, with IMGs representing 23.8% (n = 28,227) of the U.S. patient care workforce. Of all 9579 residents in family medicine, 36.0% (n = 3452) are IMGS. In total, 35.9% of IMGs attended medical school in the Caribbean (n = 10,136); 19.9% in South-Central Asia (n = 5607) and 9.1% in South-Eastern Asia (n = 2565). The most common countries of medical school training were Dominica, Mexico, and Sint Maarten. Of all IMGs in family medicine who attended medical school in the Caribbean, 74.5% were U.S. citizens. In total, 40.5% of all IMGs in family medicine held U.S. citizenship at entry to medical school. IMGs comprise almost 40% of the family medicine workforce in Florida, New Jersey and New York. CONCLUSIONS: IMGs play an important role in the U.S. family medicine workforce. Many IMGs are U.S. citizens who studied abroad and then returned to the U.S. for graduate training. Given the shortage of family physicians, and the large number of IMGs in graduate training programs, IMGs will continue to play a role in the U.S. physician workforce for some time to come. Many factors, including the supply of residency training positions, could eventually restrict the number of IMGs entering the U.S., including those contributing to family practice.

Natives as international medical graduates: A nationwide analysis in Taiwan.

INTRODUCTION: International medical graduates (IMGs) play an important role in many Western countries because of globalization and physician shortages. While the IMGs investigated in most studies were immigrants, few studies have considered the situation in which people native to a given country have studied medicine abroad and then returned to practice in their home country. To illustrate that situation, our study aimed to investigate practicing IMGs in Taiwan by comparing practicing physicians' nationalities to the countries in which the medical schools the IMGs graduated from are located. METHODS: Data were obtained from the annual official statistics released by the Taiwan Medical Association from 1998 to 2017. RESULTS: The number of practicing IMGs in Taiwan increased from 834 (3.1% of 26,991 physicians) in 1998 to 1,733 (3.7% of 46,452) in 2017. Their medical schools were distributed across 37 countries, with graduates of schools in the Philippines (n = 550), Poland (n = 420), and Myanmar (n = 364) accounting for 77.0% of all practicing IMGs in 2017. However, only 29, 0, and 253 physicians were themselves Filipinos, Polish, and Myanmarese, respectively. CONCLUSION: Most of the practicing IMGs in Taiwan are native Taiwanese. The real impact of IMGs in health policy-making and the existing quota system of admissions to medical schools thus deserve further investigations.

Reconfiguring a One-Way Street: A Position Paper on Why and How to Improve Equity in Global Physician Training.

Large numbers of U.S. physicians and medical trainees engage in hands-on clinical global health experiences abroad, where they gain skills working across cultures with limited resources. Increasingly, these experiences are becoming bidirectional, with providers from low- and middle-income countries traveling to experience health care in the United States, yet the same hands-on experiences afforded stateside physicians are rarely available for foreign medical graduates or postgraduate trainees when they arrive. These physicians are typically limited to observership experiences where they cannot interact with patients in most U.S. institutions. In this article, the authors discuss this inequity in global medical education, highlighting the shortcomings of the observership training model and the legal and regulatory barriers prohibiting foreign physicians from engaging in short-term clinical training experiences. They provide concrete recommendations on regulatory modifications that would allow meaningful short-term clinical training experiences for foreign medical graduates, including the creation of a new visa category, the designation of a specific temporary licensure category by state medical boards, and guidance for U.S. host institutions supporting such experiences. By proposing this framework, the authors hope to improve equity in global health partnerships via improved access to meaningful and productive educational experiences, particularly for foreign medical graduates with commitment to using their new knowledge and training upon return to their home countries.

A integralidade das práticas dos médicos cubanos no Programa Mais Médicos na cidade do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil / La integralidad de las prácticas de los médicos cubanos en el Programa Más Médicos en la ciudad de Río de Janeiro, Brasil / Comprehensiveness of practices by Cuban physicians in the More Doctors Program in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

A baixa oferta de médicos em áreas remotas e desfavorecidas é um obstáculo ao acesso universal e à garantia da qualidade do cuidado em saúde. Por meio do Programa Mais Médicos (PMM), até o ano de 2015, 18 mil profissionais foram incorporados ao Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) para atuação na atenção básica, sendo 79% cubanos. Este artigo analisou a integralidade das práticas dos médicos cubanos no PMM por meio de estudo qualitativo realizado no Município do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, com base em entrevistas com médicos cubanos (24) e grupo focal com supervisoras do PMM (4). A integralidade foi analisada em duas dimensões: abordagem biopsicossocial do cuidado, com orientação comunitária; e elenco de ações de promoção, prevenção e assistência. A atuação dos médicos cubanos apresenta elementos condizentes à integralidade das práticas na atenção primária, com prestação de um leque amplo de ações e serviços, coerente com a complexidade dos problemas de saúde e pluralidade dos cenários. Os profissionais possuem marcada capacidade de inserção comunitária, enfoque preventivo, planejamento de ações e bom relacionamento interpessoal na equipe, identificando-se posturas e técnicas de acolhimento, vínculo e responsabilização. Desafios foram sinalizados quanto à promoção de práticas participativas com as coletividades, à ampliação da autonomia de usuários nas decisões clínicas, ao manejo de problemas de ordem psíquica, à sistematização de ferramentas de abordagem e à realização de procedimentos invasivos. Apontam-se fortes indícios de que o PMM, além do acesso às consultas médicas, oferta cuidados integrais em saúde e contribui para o fortalecimento da atenção básica no país.(AU)

La baja oferta de médicos en áreas remotas y desfavorecidas es un obstáculo para el acceso universal y garantía de la calidad del cuidado en salud. Mediante el Programa Más Médicos (PMM), hasta el año de 2015, 18 mil profesionales se incorporaron al Sistema Único de Salud (SUS) para su actuación en la atención básica, siendo un 79% cubanos. Este artículo analizó la integralidad de las prácticas de los médicos cubanos en el PMM mediante el estudio cualitativo, realizado en el municipio de Río de Janeiro, Brasil, en base a entrevistas con médicos cubanos (24) y grupo focal con supervisoras del PMM (4). La integralidad se analizó en dos dimensiones: enfoque biopsicosocial del cuidado, con orientación comunitaria; y un elenco de acciones de promoción, prevención y asistencia. La actuación de los médicos cubanos presenta elementos coincidentes con la integralidad de las prácticas en atención primaria, con prestación de un abanico amplio de acciones y servicios, coherente con la complejidad de los problemas de salud y pluralidad de los escenarios. Los profesionales poseen una marcada capacidad de inserción comunitaria, enfoque preventivo, planificación de acciones y buena relación interpersonal en el equipo, identificándose posturas y técnicas de acogida, vínculo y responsabilización. Se señalaron desafíos respecto a la promoción de prácticas participativas con las colectividades, ampliación de la autonomía de usuarios en las decisiones clínicas, gestión de problemas de orden psíquico, sistematización de herramientas de enfoque y realización de procedimientos invasivos. Se apuntan fuertes indicios de que el PMM, además del acceso a consultas médicas, oferta cuidados integrales en salud y contribuye al fortalecimiento de la atención básica en el país.(AU)

The shortage of physicians in remote and underprivileged areas poses an obstacle to universal access and quality of health care. Through the More Doctors Program (PMM), as of 2015, 18 thousand physicians had been incorporated into Brazil's Unified National Health System (SUS) to work in basic care, 79% of whom were Cubans. This article analyzed the comprehensiveness of practices by Cuban physicians in the PMM using a qualitative study in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, based on interviews with Cuban physicians (24) and a focus group with supervisors of the PMM (4). Comprehensiveness was analyzed in two dimensions: the community-oriented biopsychosocial approach to care and the range of activities in health promotion, prevention, and care. The work by Cuban physicians presents elements that are consistent with the comprehensiveness of practices in primary care, providing a wide range of care and services, in keeping with the health problems' complexity and the plurality of settings. These health workers show outstanding capacity for community interaction, a preventive focus, planning of activities, and positive interpersonal team relations. The study identified attitudes and techniques of solidarity, physician-patient bonding, and community accountability. Challenges were identified in the promotion of participatory practices with communities, the expansion of users' autonomy in clinical decisions, management of psychological problems, systematization of approach tools, and performance of invasive procedures. The study furnishes strong evidence that the PMM, in addition to medical consultations, provides comprehensive health care and contributes to strengthening basic care in Brazil.(AU)