Olfactory-trigeminal integration in the primary olfactory cortex.

Humans naturally integrate signals from the olfactory and intranasal trigeminal systems. A tight interplay has been demonstrated between these two systems, and yet the neural circuitry mediating olfactory-trigeminal (OT) integration remains poorly understood. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), combined with psychophysics, this study investigated the neural mechanisms underlying OT integration. Fifteen participants with normal olfactory function performed a localization task with air-puff stimuli, phenylethyl alcohol (PEA; rose odor), or a combination thereof while being scanned. The ability to localize PEA to either nostril was at chance. Yet, its presence significantly improved the localization accuracy of weak, but not strong, air-puffs, when both stimuli were delivered concurrently to the same nostril, but not when different nostrils received the two stimuli. This enhancement in localization accuracy, exemplifying the principles of spatial coincidence and inverse effectiveness in multisensory integration, was associated with multisensory integrative activity in the primary olfactory (POC), orbitofrontal (OFC), superior temporal (STC), inferior parietal (IPC) and cingulate cortices, and in the cerebellum. Multisensory enhancement in most of these regions correlated with behavioral multisensory enhancement, as did increases in connectivity between some of these regions. We interpret these findings as indicating that the POC is part of a distributed brain network mediating integration between the olfactory and trigeminal systems. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Psychophysical and neuroimaging study of olfactory-trigeminal (OT) integration. Behavior, cortical activity, and network connectivity show OT integration. OT integration obeys principles of inverse effectiveness and spatial coincidence. Behavioral and neural measures of OT integration are correlated.

Acquisition of non-olfactory encoding improves odour discrimination in olfactory cortex.

Olfaction is influenced by contextual factors, past experiences, and the animal's internal state. Whether this information is integrated at the initial stages of cortical odour processing is not known, nor how these signals may influence odour encoding. Here we revealed multiple and diverse non-olfactory responses in the primary olfactory (piriform) cortex (PCx), which dynamically enhance PCx odour discrimination according to behavioural demands. We performed recordings of PCx neurons from mice trained in a virtual reality task to associate odours with visual contexts to obtain a reward. We found that learning shifts PCx activity from encoding solely odours to a regime in which positional, contextual, and associative responses emerge on odour-responsive neurons that become mixed-selective. The modulation of PCx activity by these non-olfactory signals was dynamic, improving odour decoding during task engagement and in rewarded contexts. This improvement relied on the acquired mixed-selectivity, demonstrating how integrating extra-sensory inputs in sensory cortices can enhance sensory processing while encoding the behavioural relevance of stimuli.

Development and validation of the MultiScent-20 digital odour identification test using item response theory.

Although validated and reliable psychophysical tests of olfactory function are available, an easy-to-use and feasible test has yet to be developed. This study aimed to design a digital odour identification test, evaluate its validity, assess its reliability, establish a normative curve, and explore the impact of demographic factors. The odour identification test was presented with the Multiscent-20, a hand-held, tablet-like digital scent device that features an integrated odour digital delivery system. The identification performance on the 20 odours was assessed using item response theory (IRT). The normative curve was established by administering the test to a large sample of participants (n = 1299). The mean identification score was 17.5 (SD = 2.1). The two-parameter logistic IRT model provided the best fit, revealing variation in item discrimination and difficulty parameters. Educational attainment influenced performance, with primary education associated with lower scores. Additionally, sex was not found to be associated with performance. This study provides initial evidence supporting the validity and reliability of use of the Multiscent-20 as a digital odour identification test. The test's automation and portability enable the standardized delivery of olfactory stimuli and efficient automatic recording and scoring of responses.

Pregnant women exhibit decreased trigeminal sensitivity.

INTRODUCTION: Chemosensory function in pregnant women is far from being fully understood due to the lack of data and inconsistencies between the results of self-reports and objective studies. METHODS: In the present study in pregnant and non-pregnant women (npregnant = 14, nnon-pregnant = 13), we measured EEG-derived electrophysiological response measures supported by psychophysical olfactory and trigeminal tests. RESULTS: Results indicate that the olfactory event-related potential amplitudes or latencies of the P1, N1, and P2 components remain unchanged in pregnant women. In accordance with these findings, no difference was observed between pregnant and non-pregnant women in psychophysical olfactory tests. However, pregnant women displayed a lower degree of sensitivity to trigeminal stimuli compared to non-pregnant controls, which was also reflected in the electrophysiological responses to trigeminal stimuli. CONCLUSION: Counterintuitive as they may seem, our findings demonstrate a "flattening" of chemosomatosensory responses. Psychological processes occurring during pregnancy, such as changes in socioemotional perception of odors resulting from the diminished stress response, may provide a background to these results. Overall, the present results indicate the absence of major differences between non-pregnant and pregnant women in terms of measured olfactory function though chemosomatosensory function of the pregnant women appears to be decreased.

Odors in space.

As an evolutionarily ancient sense, olfaction is key to learning where to find food, shelter, mates, and important landmarks in an animal's environment. Brain circuitry linking odor and navigation appears to be a well conserved multi-region system among mammals; the anterior olfactory nucleus, piriform cortex, entorhinal cortex, and hippocampus each represent different aspects of olfactory and spatial information. We review recent advances in our understanding of the neural circuits underlying odor-place associations, highlighting key choices of behavioral task design and neural circuit manipulations for investigating learning and memory.

The m6A reader SlYTH2 negatively regulates tomato fruit aroma by impeding the translation process.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is a fundamentally important RNA modification for gene regulation, whose function is achieved through m6A readers. However, whether and how m6A readers play regulatory roles during fruit ripening and quality formation remains unclear. Here, we characterized SlYTH2 as a tomato m6A reader protein and profiled the binding sites of SlYTH2 at the transcriptome-wide level. SlYTH2 undergoes liquid-liquid phase separation and promotes RNA-protein condensate formation. The target mRNAs of SlYTH2, namely m6A-modified SlHPL and SlCCD1B associated with volatile synthesis, are enriched in SlYTH2-induced condensates. Through polysome profiling assays and proteomic analysis, we demonstrate that knockout of SlYTH2 expedites the translation process of SlHPL and SlCCD1B, resulting in augmented production of aroma-associated volatiles. This aroma enrichment significantly increased consumer preferences for CRISPR-edited fruit over wild type. These findings shed light on the underlying mechanisms of m6A in plant RNA metabolism and provided a promising strategy to generate fruits that are more attractive to consumers.

Design and test of novel scent enrichments to enhance breeding of zoo-housed lemurs.

Background: Zoos use environmental enrichments, including scents, which may have applications to improve breeding success for taxa, such as lemurs, which rely heavily on olfactory communication. We aimed to develop novel, biologically-relevant scent enrichments to trigger mating behaviours of zoo-housed lemur species, which are critically endangered in the wild and show a low success rate in captive breeding programmes. Methods: We examined anogenital odour secretions, released by female gentle ( Hapalemur alaotrensis) and ruffed ( Varecia variegata) lemurs, using solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry techniques. We identified the key compounds distinguishing the volatile chemical profile of female lemurs during the breeding season and used them to develop species-specific scent enrichments. We then tested the scent enrichments, made up of synthesized mixtures conveying information about female lemur fertility, on unsuccessful breeding pairs of lemurs hosted in European zoos. We evaluated the effects of the newly designed scent enrichments on their target species by combining behavioural observations with faecal endocrinology. Results: We identified and reproduced fertility-specific signals associated with female scents. These scent mixtures triggered male sexual behaviours, including mating, during and after the enrichment condition. We also found effects on faecal testosterone levels, with increased levels after the enrichment condition albeit not statistically significant. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that biologically-relevant scent enrichments may trigger natural species-specific behaviours, with potential implications for conservation breeding of zoo-based endangered lemur species, and highlight that combining more assessment methods may assist with evaluating the impact of environmental enrichments.

Evaluation of three granular activated carbon filters for the treatment of collections foul air entering a water resource recovery facility.

The treatment of raw foul air that could escape to the atmosphere from the head space of the incoming wastewater sewer lines into a Southern California Water Resource Recovery Facility was evaluated by using a 1/20th scale pilot unit consisting of three different granular activated carbon filter technologies, operating side by side, under similar operating conditions, each having an average 3.8-s contact time. The three activated carbon filters contained each 0.07 m3 of coconut, coal, and coconut mixed with permanganate media. The foul air entering the granular activated carbon filters contained 82% to 83% relative humidity. No moisture removal mechanism was used prior to treatment. The removal of six different odor characters from eight chemical odorants present in the foul air were assessed. These were rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide), rotten vegetables (methyl mercaptan), canned corn (dimethyl sulfide), rotten garlic (dimethyl disulfide), earthy/musty (2-methyl isoborneol and 2-isopropyl 3-methoxy pyrazine), and fecal (skatole and indole). This is the first time a study evaluates the removal of specific odors by simultaneously employing sensory analyses using the odor profile method, which defines the different odor characters and intensities, together with chemical analyses of the odorants causing these odors. The results show that the three granular activated carbon filters, before hydrogen sulfide breakthrough, provided significant improvement in odor intensity and odorant removal. Breakthrough was reached after 57 days for the coconut mixed with permanganate, 107 days for the coconut, and 129 days for the coal granular activated carbon filter. Breakthrough (the critical saturation point of the activated carbon media) was considered reached when the hydrogen sulfide percentage removal diminished to 90% and continued downward. The coconut mixed with permanganate granular activated carbon filter provided the best treatment among the media tested, achieving very good reduction of odorants, as measured by chemical analyses, and reasonable removal of odor intensities, as measured by the odor profile method. The coconut mixed with permanganate granular activated carbon is recommended for short-term odor control systems at sewer networks or emergency plant maintenance situations given its shorter time to breakthrough compared with the other granular activated carbons. The coal and coconut granular activated carbon filters are generally used as the last stage of an odor treatment system. Because of the observed poor to average performance in removing odorants other than hydrogen sulfide, the treatment stage(s) prior to the use of these granulated activated carbons should provide a good methyl mercaptan removal of at least 90% in order to avoid the formation of dimethyl disulfide, which, in the presence of moisture in the carbon filter, emit the characteristic rotten garlic odor. The differences observed between the performances based on odorant removal by chemical analysis compared with those based on sensorial analyses by the odor profile method indicate that both analyses are required to understand more fully the odor dynamics. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Three virgin granulated activated carbon media were evaluated in a field pilot unit using raw collections foul air. Coal, coconut, and coconut mixed with permanganate were tested until breakthrough. Samples were analyzed both chemically (odorants) and sensorially (odors). Coconut mixed with permanganate proved to be the media that better reduced odorants and odors.

The Influence of Active Compounds of Chips Made from Different Wood Species on the Antioxidant, Oenological and Sensory Properties of Apple Wines.

Wood chips contain numerous active compounds that can affect the wine's characteristics. They are commonly used in red grape wines, whisky, cherry and brandy, but in fruit wines, production is not typically utilised. The aim of this study was to compare the impact of an oak barrel ageing with the effect of the addition of chips made from various types of wood (oak, maple, cherry, apple) and with various degrees of toasting to the apple wines on their antioxidant, oenological and sensory properties. The oenological parameters, the polyphenols content, antioxidant activity and content of volatile odour-active compounds were assessed. It was shown that ageing in the presence of wood chips had a less noticeable effect on the oenological and sensory parameters of the wine than barrel ageing. Moreover, wood chips used did not significantly affect the acidity, alcohol and extract content of apple wines. Wines aged in the presence of oak chips (particularly lightly toasted) exhibited the greatest increase in polyphenols, while the polyphenol content of wines aged in the presence of other chips was not dependent on their toasting degree. The ageing of fruit wines with wood chips influences the volatile profile and the olfactory sensations, which can improve their quality.

A Recyclable Polypropylene Multilayer Film Maintaining the Quality and the Aroma of Coffee Pods during Their Shelf Life.

Films for coffee-pod packaging usually contain aluminium as an impermeable foil that is not recyclable and has to be discharged as waste. In this study, a recyclable polypropylene multilayer film is proposed as an alternative. The performance on the chemical composition of coffee was evaluated and compared to that of film containing aluminium (standard). The oxygen in the headspace, moisture, lipidic oxidation, and volatile organic compounds were studied in coffee pods during storage for 12 months at 25 and 40 °C. In addition, the acidity and acceptability of extracted coffee were evaluated. In the polypropylene-packaged pods, the percentage of oxygen during storage at 25 °C was lower than that in the standard. Moisture was not affected by the type of packaging materials. No differences were found between the peroxide values, except in pods stored for 3, 10, and 11 months at 25 °C, where they were even lower than the standard. Furans and pyrazines were the main volatile organic compounds detected. No differences were found in the pH and titratable acidity of the coffee brew either. All samples were well accepted by consumers without any perceived difference related to the packaging film. The polypropylene multilayer film is a sustainable recyclable material with high performance, in particular, against oxygen permeation.

Comparative Evaluation of Flavor and Sensory Quality of Coffee Pulp Wines.

Coffee pulp wines were produced through the mixed fermentation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and the flavor and sensory characteristics were comparatively evaluated. A total of 87 volatile components were identified from five coffee pulp wines, of which 68 were present in all samples, accounting for over 99% of the total concentration. The sample fermented contained significantly higher levels of volatile metabolites (56.80 mg/g). Alcohols (22 species) and esters (26 species) were the main flavor components, with the contents accounting for 56.45 ± 3.93% and 31.18 ± 4.24%, respectively, of the total. Furthermore, 14 characteristic components were identified as potential odor-active compounds, contributing to sweet and floral apple brandy flavor. Although the characteristic components are similar, the difference in the content makes the overall sensory evaluation of the samples different. The samples formed by fermentation of four strains, which obtained the highest score (86.46 ± 0.36) in sensory evaluation, were further interpreted and demonstrated through the Mantel test. The results of the component analysis were effectively distinguished by OPLS-DA and PCA, and this validation was supported by sensory evaluation. The research results provided a technical reference for the production of coffee pulp wines.

Molecular and Phytochemical Characteristics of Flower Color and Scent Compounds in Dog Rose (Rosa canina L.).

This study delves into the chemical and genetic determinants of petal color and fragrance in Rosa canina L., a wild rose species prized for its pharmacological and cosmetic uses. Comparative analysis of white and dark pink R. canina flowers revealed that the former harbors significantly higher levels of total phenolics (TPC) and flavonoids (TFC), while the latter is distinguished by elevated total anthocyanins (TAC). Essential oils in the petals were predominantly composed of aliphatic hydrocarbons, with phenolic content chiefly constituted by flavonols and anthocyanins. Notably, gene expression analysis showed an upregulation in most genes associated with petal color and scent biosynthesis in white buds compared to dark pink open flowers. However, anthocyanin synthase (ANS) and its regulatory gene RhMYB1 exhibited comparable expression levels across both flower hues. LC-MS profiling identified Rutin, kaempferol, quercetin, and their derivatives as key flavonoid constituents, alongside cyanidin and delphinidin as the primary anthocyanin compounds. The findings suggest a potential feedback inhibition of anthocyanin biosynthesis in white flowers. These insights pave the way for the targeted enhancement of R. canina floral traits through metabolic and genetic engineering strategies.

Comparative Evaluation of the Sensory Qualities of Refined and Wholegrain Rice as Ingredients within Mixed Dishes.

Low wholegrain food consumption is a leading dietary risk for avoidable morbidity and mortality globally, with limited sensory acceptability suggested to be a challenge for changing behaviour. This study aimed to evaluate the sensory acceptability of both wholegrain (brown) and refined (white) rice in common preparations. Four brown- and white-rice-containing dishes (Garlic Rice, Rice and Beans, Jollof Rice, and Rice Pudding) were tested. Quantitative (five-point scales) and qualitative (open question responses) sensory information were collected for dish appearance, aroma, taste, and texture. All four characteristics were scored equally acceptable in Rice and Beans and Rice Pudding (p > 0.05) between paired comparisons for brown and white rice. Scores were significantly lower for all characteristics for Jollof Rice (p ≤ 0.002), and lower for Aroma (median (lower quartile-upper quartile)) for brown (3.5 (3-4)) vs. white rice (4 (4-5)), p = 0.006). Appearance (brown (3 (3-4)) vs. white rice (4 (3.25-5)), p = 0.012), and Texture (brown 3 (2.25-4) vs. white rice (4 (4-5)), p < 0.001) for Garlic Rice. Familiarity and appealingness were qualitative themes aligned with the higher acceptability of white-rice-containing dishes. Certain dishes appear to mask key negative sensory attributes of wholegrain foods, possibly representing a means to increase wholegrain ingredient acceptability, thereby potentially improving individual/population-level intake.

Application of Sensory Methods to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Solutions to Reduce the Exposure to Odour Nuisance and Ammonia Emissions from the Compost Heaps.

Exposure to high concentrations of odours can result in health effects associated with direct health risks and irritation from nuisance. This investigation aimed to correlate aspects of the waste composting process with the emission levels of malodourous compounds. An essential optimisation criterion is the reduction of negative environmental impacts, particularly odour emissions. This study characterises odour concentration variations across various technological variants over different weeks of the composting process. A secondary objective is evaluating the efficacy of these variants, which differ in inoculation substances and compost heap composition. Olfactometric analyses were conducted using portable field olfactometers, enabling precise dilutions by mixing contaminated and purified air. The primary aim was to examine the correlation between selected odour parameters, determined via sensory analysis, and ammonia concentration during different composting weeks. Ammonia levels were measured using an RAE electrochemical sensor. Research shows that odour concentration is a significant indicator of compost maturity. In situ, olfactometric testing can effectively monitor the aerobic stabilisation process alone or with other methods. The most effective technological solution was identified by combining olfactometric and ammonia measurements and monitoring composting parameters, ensuring minimal odour emissions and the safety of employees and nearby residents.

A scoping review of olfactory interventions for fatigue relief: addressing occupational health hazards.

Background: Fatigue poses risks to occupational health and safety, affecting individuals' work efficiency, physical health, and social security, as well as human wellbeing and quality of life. Olfactory interventions, due to their low interference, are considered promising strategies for mitigating fatigue and reducing occupational health hazards. Objective: The objective of this review is to bridge the current gaps in the literature by conducting a scoping review of olfactory interventions on human alertness. It aims to explore their application in various occupational settings and to provide comprehensive and practical guidance for the practical application of olfactory interventions in mitigating fatigue and reducing occupational risks. Methods: The literature research was conducted in English using electronic databases such as Web of Science. Keywords related to scent and fatigue and the review followed PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews and PICO framework. Results: 28 studies were included in this work. Participant characteristics, fatigue measurement methods, and scent intervention methods, such as types of scents, intervention strategies, and scent presentation systems, are thoroughly investigated and discussed. Additionally, the study places a specific emphasis on the applications and research within the field of scent interventions for fatigue driving. Olfactory interventions have been applied to populations in various occupational fields, demonstrating beneficial effects on both physiological and psychological fatigue. Conclusions: Olfactory intervention is effective and promising for enhancing alertness and improving the occupational environment. To provide detailed and practical guidance for the actual application of olfactory intervention in fatigue relief and reducing occupational health and safety hazards, further research into the potential mechanisms, applications, and efficacy assessment systems of fatigue-related olfactory interventions is necessary.

Generation of Olfactory Compounds in Cat Food Attractants: Chicken Liver-Derived Protein Hydrolysates and Their Contribution to Enhancing Palatability.

The present study investigated the impact of four chicken liver protein hydrolysate-based cat food attractants on palatability. Aroma compounds were analyzed in these attractants, which were subsequently sprayed onto four different types of cat foods. Results revealed that CF4 exhibited the highest intake ratio and the first choice ratio, followed by CF2 sample. Orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) demonstrated significant differences among 50 volatile compounds identified from the four cat foods. Using variable importance in projection (VIP) values, we selected 17 key flavor compounds responsible for distinguishing between the four cat foods. Peptides with a molecular mass <180 Da showed correlation with nonanoic acid and cedrol, while those >3000 Da correlated with hexanoic acid ethyl ester. Regression coefficients (RCs) calculated from partial least-squares regression (PLSR) results showed positive correlations between compound content and palatability for six compounds, whereas negative correlations were observed for ten compounds. Validation experiments confirmed that nonanal, 2-propylpyridine, and 3-octen-2-one enhanced palatability and correlated with peptides ranging from 180 to 500 Da; conversely, nonanoic acid ethyl ester and 3-methyl-pentanoic acid reduced palatability and correlated with peptides ranging from 1000 to 3000 Da.

Response Plasticity of Drosophila Olfactory Sensory Neurons.

In insect olfaction, sensitization refers to the amplification of a weak olfactory signal when the stimulus is repeated within a specific time window. In the vinegar fly, Drosophila melanogaster, this occurs already at the periphery, at the level of olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) located in the antenna. In our study, we investigate whether sensitization is a widespread property in a set of seven types of OSNs, as well as the mechanisms involved. First, we characterize and compare the differences in spontaneous activity, response velocity and response dynamics, among the selected OSN types. These express different receptors with distinct tuning properties and behavioral relevance. Second, we show that sensitization is not a general property. Among our selected OSN types, it occurs in those responding to more general food odors, while OSNs involved in very specific detection of highly specific ecological cues like pheromones and warning signals show no sensitization. Moreover, we show that mitochondria play an active role in sensitization by contributing to the increase in intracellular Ca2+ upon weak receptor activation. Thus, by using a combination of single sensillum recordings (SSRs), calcium imaging and pharmacology, we widen the understanding of how the olfactory signal is processed at the periphery.

The formation of volatiles in fruit wine process and its impact on wine quality.

Fruit wine is one of the oldest fermented beverages made from non-grape fruits. Owing to the differences in fruit varieties, growing regions, climates, and harvesting seasons, the nutritional compositions of fruits (sugars, organic acids, etc.) are different. Therefore, the fermentation process and microorganisms involved are varied for a particular fruit selected for wine production, resulting in differences in volatile compound formation, which ultimately determine the quality of fruit wine. This article reviews the effects of various factors involved in fruit wine making, especially the particular modifications differing from the grape winemaking process and the selected strains suitable for the specific fruit wine fermentation, on the formation of volatile compounds, flavor and aroma profiles, and quality characteristics of the wine thus produced. KEY POINTS: • The volatile profile and fruit wine quality are affected by enological parameters. • The composition and content of nutrients in fruit must impact volatile profiles. • Yeast and LAB are the key determining factors of the volatile profiles of fruit wines.

Bio-enriched composite materials derived from waste cooking oil for selective reduction of odour intensity.

Currently, pathogenic microorganisms are becoming more active in public utility areas like parking lots and waste shelters due to the accumulation of organic waste. This uncontrolled waste leads to decay, altering its composition and presenting a microbiological risk to public health. Additionally, it emits unpleasant odors containing chemicals that irritate the mucous membranes, causing discomfort in the nose, throat, and eyes by stimulating the trigeminal nerve. These odors can have various negative effects on both quality of life and public health. The study investigated the physicochemical properties of oil composites enriched with natural additives and determined their effectiveness in reducing the intensity of nuisance odours. The research showed over 82% reduction in decaying meat odour and almost 65% reduction in ammonia odour. A higher impact of the given composites on reducing the odour from decaying meat than from ammonia was observed. This may be due to the biocidal properties of the additives used (turmeric, thymol, salicylic acid, hops and curly sorrel) and the higher intensity of ammonia odor compared to meat-derived odour. Despite the non-porous nature of the solids tested (with similar specific surface areas ranging from 0.66 to 0.88 m2/g), they were capable of sorbing NH3.

Geosmin, a Food- and Water-Deteriorating Sesquiterpenoid and Ambivalent Semiochemical, Activates Evolutionary Conserved Receptor OR11A1.

Geosmin, a ubiquitous volatile sesquiterpenoid of microbiological origin, is causative for deteriorating the quality of many foods, beverages, and drinking water, by eliciting an undesirable "earthy/musty" off-flavor. Moreover, and across species from worm to human, geosmin is a volatile, chemosensory trigger of both avoidance and attraction behaviors, suggesting its role as semiochemical. Volatiles typically are detected by chemosensory receptors of the nose, which have evolved to best detect ecologically relevant food-related odorants and semiochemicals. An insect receptor for geosmin was recently identified in flies. A human geosmin-selective receptor, however, has been elusive. Here, we report on the identification and characterization of a human odorant receptor for geosmin, with its function being conserved in orthologs across six mammalian species. Notably, the receptor from the desert-dwelling kangaroo rat showed a more than 100-fold higher sensitivity compared to its human ortholog and detected geosmin at low nmol/L concentrations in extracts from geosmin-producing actinomycetes.