From proteome to candidate vaccines: target discovery and molecular dynamics-guided multi-epitope vaccine engineering against kissing bug.

Introduction: Trypanosoma cruzi is a protozoan parasite that causes the tropical ailment known as Chagas disease, which has its origins in South America. Globally, it has a major impact on health and is transported by insect vector that serves as a parasite. Given the scarcity of vaccines and the limited treatment choices, we conducted a comprehensive investigation of core proteomics to explore a potential reverse vaccine candidate with high antigenicity. Methods: To identify the immunodominant epitopes, T. cruzi core proteomics was initially explored. Consequently, the vaccine sequence was engineered to possess characteristics of non-allergenicity, antigenicity, immunogenicity, and enhanced solubility. After modeling the tertiary structure of the human TLR4 receptor, the binding affinities were assessed employing molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations (MDS). Results: Docking of the final vaccine design with TLR4 receptors revealed substantial hydrogen bond interactions. A server-based methodology for immunological simulation was developed to forecast the effectiveness against antibodies (IgM + IgG) and interferons (IFN-g). The MDS analysis revealed notable levels of structural compactness and binding stability with average RMSD of 5.03 Aring;, beta-factor 1.09e+5 Å, Rg is 44.7 Aring; and RMSF of 49.50 Aring;. This is followed by binding free energies calculation. The system stability was compromised by the complexes, as evidenced by their corresponding Gibbs free energies of -54.6 kcal/mol. Discussion: Subtractive proteomics approach was applied to determine the antigenic regions of the T cruzi. Our study utilized computational techniques to identify B- and T-cell epitopes in the T. cruzi core proteome. In current study the developed vaccine candidate exhibits immunodominant features. Our findings suggest that formulating a vaccine targeting the causative agent of Chagas disease should be the initial step in its development.

Assessment on malvidin-3-glucoside interaction with TLR4 via multi-spectroscopic analysis and molecular docking.

As one innate immune pattern recognition receptor, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) recently has been considered as a critical player in glucolipid metabolism. Blueberries contain high level of anthocyanins, especially malvidin-3-glucoside (Mv-3-glc), which contribute the anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects. It is speculated that Mv-3-glc is able to possess these functions by binding to TLR4. Here, the noncovalent interactions of Mv-3-glc and TLR4 was explored through multi-techniques including fluorescence and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) absorption spectroscopy, as well as molecular docking. The results demonstrated that Mv-3-glc was able to quench TLR4 intrinsic fluorescence effectively. A stable complex was formed spontaneously and the reaction was exothermic. The degree of binding of Mv-3-glc to TLR4 showed a strong dependence on the chemical concentration, temperature, and pH values. The negative signs for enthalpy (ΔH = -69.1 ± 10.8 kJ/mol) and entropy (ΔS = -105.0 ± 12.3 J/mol/K) from the interaction of the Mv-3-glc and TLR4 shows that the major driving forces are the hydrogen bonding and van der Waals' force, which is consistent with the molecular docking results. In addition, molecular docking predicted that the active center with specific amino acid residues, Phe126, Ser127, Leu54, Ile153, and Tyr131 was responsible for the site of Mv-3-glc binding to TLR4/myeloid differentiation protein-2 (MD-2). These findings confirmed that Mv-3-glc could bind to TLR4, which would be beneficial to understand the target therapeutic effects of blueberry anthocyanins on TLR4 in regulating glucolipid metabolism.

Designing of a multi-epitopes based vaccine against Haemophilius parainfluenzae and its validation through integrated computational approaches.

Haemophilus parainfluenzae is a Gram-negative opportunist pathogen within the mucus of the nose and mouth without significant symptoms and has an ability to cause various infections ranging from ear, eye, and sinus to pneumonia. A concerning development is the increasing resistance of H. parainfluenzae to beta-lactam antibiotics, with the potential to cause dental infections or abscesses. The principal objective of this investigation is to utilize bioinformatics and immuno-informatic methodologies in the development of a candidate multi-epitope Vaccine. The investigation focuses on identifying potential epitopes for both B cells (B lymphocytes) and T cells (helper T lymphocytes and cytotoxic T lymphocytes) based on high non-toxic and non-allergenic characteristics. The selection process involves identifying human leukocyte antigen alleles demonstrating strong associations with recognized antigenic and overlapping epitopes. Notably, the chosen alleles aim to provide coverage for 90% of the global population. Multi-epitope constructs were designed by using suitable linker sequences. To enhance the immunological potential, an adjuvant sequence was incorporated using the EAAAK linker. The final vaccine construct, comprising 344 amino acids, was achieved after the addition of adjuvants and linkers. This multi-epitope Vaccine demonstrates notable antigenicity and possesses favorable physiochemical characteristics. The three-dimensional conformation underwent modeling and refinement, validated through in-silico methods. Additionally, a protein-protein molecular docking analysis was conducted to predict effective binding poses between the multi-epitope Vaccine and the Toll-like receptor 4 protein. The Molecular Dynamics (MD) investigation of the docked TLR4-vaccine complex demonstrated consistent stability over the simulation period, primarily attributed to electrostatic energy. The docked complex displayed minimal deformation and enhanced rigidity in the motion of residues during the dynamic simulation. Furthermore, codon translational optimization and computational cloning was performed to ensure the reliability and proper expression of the multi-Epitope Vaccine. It is crucial to emphasize that despite these computational validations, experimental research in the laboratory is imperative to demonstrate the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of the developed vaccine. This would involve practical assessments to ascertain the real-world effectiveness of the multi-epitope Vaccine.

Unveiling molecular insights: in silico exploration of TLR4 antagonist for management of dry eye syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Dry eye disease is the most commonplace multifractional ocular complication, which has already affected millions of people in the world. It is identified by the excessive buildup of reactive oxygen species, leading to substantial corneal epithelial cell demise and ocular surface inflammation attributed to TLR4. In this study, we aimed to identify potential compounds to treat of dry eye syndrome by exploring in silico methods. METHODS: In this research, molecular docking and dynamics simulation tests were used to examine the effects of selected compounds on TLR4 receptor. Compounds were extracted from different databases and were prepared and docked against TLR4 receptor via Autodock Vina. Celastrol, lumacaftor and nilotinib were selected for further molecular dynamics studies for a deeper understanding of molecular systems consisting of protein and ligands by using the Desmond module of the Schrodinger Suite. RESULTS: The docking results revealed that the compounds are having binding affinity in the range of -5.1 to -8.78 based on the binding affinity and three-dimensional interactions celastrol, lumacaftor and nilotinib were further studied for their activity by molecular dynamics. Among the three compounds, celastrol was the most stable based on molecular dynamics trajectory analysis from 100 ns in the catalytic pockets of 2Z63.pdb.pdb. Root mean square deviation of celastrol/2Z63 was in the range of 1.8-4.8 Å. CONCLUSION: In particular, Glu376 of TLR4 receptor is crucial for the identification and binding of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which are part of Gram-negative bacteria's outer membrane. In our investigation, celastrol binds to Glu376, suggesting that celastrol may prevent the dry eye syndrome by inhibiting LPS's binding to TLR4.

Structure-Based Design and Synthesis of Lipid A Derivatives to Modulate Cytokine Responses.

Agonists of Toll like receptors (TLRs) have attracted interest as adjuvants and immune modulators. A crystal structure of TLR4/MD2 with E. coli LPS indicates that the fatty acid at C-2 of the lipid A component of LPS induces dimerization of two TLR4-MD2 complexes, which in turn initiates cell signaling leading to the production of (pro)inflammatory cytokines. To probe the importance of the (R)-3-hydroxymyristate at C-2 of lipid A, a range of bis- and mono-phosphoryl lipid A derivatives with different modifications at C-2 were prepared by a strategy in which 2-methylnaphthyl ethers were employed as permanent protecting group that could be readily removed by catalytic hydrogenation. The C-2 amine was protected as 9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbamate, which at a later stage could be removed to give a free amine that was modified by different fatty acids. LPS and the synthetic lipid As induced the same cytokines, however, large differences in activity were observed. A compound having a hexanoyl moiety at C-2 still showed agonistic properties, but further shortening to a butanoyl abolished activity. The modifications had a larger influence on monophosphoryl lipid As. The lipid As having a butanoyl moiety at C-2 could selectively antagonize TRIF associated cytokines induced by LPS or lipid A.

Increasing outer membrane complexity: the case of the lipopolysaccharide lipid A from marine Cellulophaga pacifica.

Gram-negative bacteria living in marine waters have evolved peculiar adaptation strategies to deal with the numerous stress conditions that characterize aquatic environments. Among the multiple mechanisms for efficient adaptation, these bacteria typically exhibit chemical modifications in the structure of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is a fundamental component of their outer membrane. In particular, the glycolipid anchor to the membrane of marine bacteria LPSs, i.e. the lipid A, frequently shows unusual chemical structures, which are reflected in equally singular immunological properties with potential applications as immune adjuvants or anti-sepsis drugs. In this work, we determined the chemical structure of the lipid A from Cellulophaga pacifica KMM 3664T isolated from the Sea of Japan. This bacterium showed to produce a heterogeneous mixture of lipid A molecules that mainly display five acyl chains and carry a single phosphate and a D-mannose disaccharide on the glucosamine backbone. Furthermore, we proved that C. pacifica KMM 3664T LPS acts as a weaker activator of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) compared to the prototypical enterobacterial Salmonella typhimurium LPS. Our results are relevant to the future development of novel vaccine adjuvants and immunomodulators inspired by marine LPS chemistry.

Identification and Molecular Mechanism of Novel Two-Way Immunomodulatory Peptides from Ovalbumin: In Vitro Cell Experiments, De Novo Sequencing, and Molecular Docking.

The purpose of this study was to identify ovalbumin-derived immunomodulatory peptides by in vitro cell experiments, de novo sequencing, and molecular docking. Ovalbumin hydrolysates were prepared by two enzymes (alkaline protease and papain) individually, sequentially, or simultaneously, respectively. The simultaneous enzymatic hydrolysate (OVAH) had a high degree of hydrolysis (38.12 ± 0.48%) and exhibited immune-enhancing and anti-inflammatory activities. A total of 160 peptides were identified by LC-MS/MS in OVAH. Three novel peptides NVMEERKIK, ADQARELINS, and WEKAFKDE bound to TLR4-MD2 through hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions with high binding affinity and binding energies of -181.40, -178.03, and -168.12 kcal/mol, respectively. These three peptides were synthesized and validated for two-way immunomodulatory activity. NVMEERKIK exhibiting the strongest immunomodulatory activity, increased NO and TNF-α levels by 128.69 and 38.01%, respectively, in normal RAW264.7 cells and reduced NO and TNF-α levels by 27.31 and 39.13%, respectively, in lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory RAW264.7 cells. Overall, this study first revealed that ovalbumin could be used as an immunomodulatory source for controlling inflammatory factor secretion.

Computational Deciphering of the Role of S100A8 and S100A9 Proteins and Their Changes in the Structure Assembly Influences Their Interaction with TLR4, RAGE, and CD36.

S100A8 and S100A9 belong to the calcium-binding, damage associated molecular pattern (DAMP) proteins shown to aggravate the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) through their interaction with the TLR4, RAGE and CD36 receptors. S100A8 and S100A9 proteins tend to exist in monomeric, homo and heterodimeric forms, which have been implicated in the pathogenesis of RA, via interacting with Pattern Recognition receptors (PRRs). The study aims to assess the influence of changes in the structure and biological assembly of S100A8 and S100A9 proteins as well as their interaction with significant receptors in RA through computational methods and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analysis. Molecular docking analysis revealed that the S100A9 homodimer and S100A8/A9 heterodimer showed higher binding affinity towards the target receptors. Most S100 proteins showed good binding affinity towards TLR4 compared to other receptors. Based on the 50 ns MD simulations, TLR4, RAGE, and CD36 formed stable complexes with the monomeric and dimeric forms of S100A8 and S100A9 proteins. However, SPR analysis showed that the S100A8/A9 heterodimers formed stable complexes and exhibited high binding affinity towards the receptors. SPR data also indicated that TLR4 and its interactions with S100A8/A9 proteins may play a primary role in the pathogenesis of RA, with additional contributions from CD36 and RAGE interactions. Subsequent in vitro and in vivo investigations are warranted to corroborate the involvement of S100A8/A9 and the expression of TLR4, RAGE, and CD36 in the pathophysiology of RA.

A computational quest for identifying potential vaccine candidates against Moraxella lacunata: a multi-pronged approach.

Moraxella lacunata is an emerging gram-negative bacterium that is responsible for multiple nosocomial infections. The bacterium is evolving resistance to several antibiotics, and currently, no effective licensed vaccines are available, which warrants the search for new therapeutics. A multi-epitope-based vaccine has been designed for M. lacunata. The complete proteome of M. lacunata contains 10,110 core proteins. Subcellular localization analysis revealed the presence of five proteins in the extracellular matrix, while 19 proteins were predicted to be located in the outer membrane, and 21 proteins were predicted to be located in the periplasmic region. Only two proteins, the type VI secretion system tube protein (Hcp) and the transporter substrate-binding domain-containing protein, were selected for epitope prediction as they fulfilled all the criteria for being potential vaccine candidates. Shortlisted epitopes from the selected proteins were fused together using "GPGPG" linkers to overcome the limitations of single-epitope vaccines. Next, the cholera toxin-B adjuvant was attached to the peptide epitope using an EAAAK linker. Docking analysis was performed to examine the interaction between the vaccine and immune cell receptors, revealing robust intermolecular interactions and a stable binding conformation. Molecular dynamics simulation findings revealed no drastic changes in the binding conformation of complexes during the simulation period. The net binding free energy of vaccine-receptor complexes was estimated using the molecular mechanics energies combined with the Poisson-Boltzmann and surface area continuum solvation (MM-PBSA) method. The reported values were -586.38 kcal/mol, -283.74 kcal/mol, and -296.88 kcal/mol for the TLR-4-vaccine complex, MHC-I-vaccine complex, and MHC-II-vaccine complex, respectively. Furthermore, the molecular mechanics energies combined with the generalized Born and surface area continuum solvation (MM-GBSA) analysis predicted binding free energies of -596.69 kcal/mol, -287.39 kcal/mol, and -298.28 kcal/mol for the TLR-4-vaccine complex, MHC-I-vaccine complex, and MHC-II-vaccine complex, respectively. The theoretical vaccine design proposed in the study could potentially serve as a powerful therapeutic against targeted pathogens, subject to validation through experimental studies.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Defeating a superbug: A breakthrough in vaccine design against multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa using reverse vaccinology.

BACKGROUND: Multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa has become a major cause of severe infections. Due to the lack of approved vaccines, this study has presented putative vaccine candidates against it. METHODS: P. aeruginosa 24Pae112 as a reference strain was retrieved from GenBank database. The surface-exposed, antigenic, non-allergenic, and non-homologous human proteins were selected. The conserved domains of selected proteins were evaluated, and the prevalence of proteins was assessed among 395 genomes. Next, linear and conformational B-cell epitopes, and human MHC II binding sites were determined. Finally, five conserved and highly antigenic B-cell epitopes from OMPs were implanted on the three platforms as multi-epitope vaccines, including FliC, the bacteriophage T7 tail, and the cell wall-associated transporter proteins. The immunoreactivity was investigated using molecular docking and immune simulation. Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulation was done to refine the chimeric cell-wall-associated transporter-TLR4 complex as the best interaction. RESULTS: Among 6494 total proteins of P. aeruginosa 24Pae112, 16 proteins (seven OMPs and nine secreted) were ideal according to the defined criteria. These proteins had a molecular weight of 110 kDa and were prevalent in ≥ 75% of P. aeruginosa genomes. Among the presented multi-epitope vaccines, the chimeric cell-wall-associated transporter had the strongest interaction with TLR4. Moreover, the immune simulation response revealed that the bacteriophage T7 tail chimeric protein had the strongest ability to stimulate the immune system. In addition, molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulation indicated the proper and stable interactions between the chimeric cell-wall-associated transporter and TLR4. CONCLUSION: This study proposed 16 shortlisted proteins as promising immunogenic targets. Two novel platforms (e.g. cell-wall-associated transporter and bacteriophage T7 tail proteins) for designing of multi-epitope vaccines (MEVs), showed the better performance compared to FliC. In our future studies, these two MEVs will receive more scrutiny to evaluate their immunoreactivity.

The pathogenic effect of SNPs on structure and function of human TLR4 using a computational approach.

The human toll-like receptor (hTLR) 4 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are interconnected with cancer, multiple genetic disorders and other immune-related diseases. The detrimental effect of SNPs in hTLR4 with respect to structure and function has not been explored in depth. The present study concatenates the biological consequences of the SNPs along with structural modifications predicted at the hTLR4 gene. A total of 7910 SNPs of hTLR4 were screened, and 21 damage-causing SNPs were identified. Out of 21, seven are present in the extracellular region, of which three were detected as deleterious and the fourth one as moderate. These three mutations are located in a highly conserved region and influence conformational change. The change leads to the widening of the Leucine-rich repeat (LRR) arc to a maximum of 16.9 Å and a minimum of 8.7 Å. Expansion/shortening of LRR arc, never discussed before, would cause loss of myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD-2) interactions in the interior and diminish lipopolysaccharide (LPS) responses. Similarly, in all mutant structures, the binding region for HMGB1 and LPS is deflating or in an unsupportive conformation. Thus, SNPs affect the regular signaling cascade and might result in human sepsis, genetic disorders, cancer and other immunological related diseases.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

The effect of Nateglinide and Octreotide on follicular morphology and free radical scavenging system in letrazole-induced rat model of PCOS.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of octreotide and nateglinide on ovarian follicle count, ovarian tissue damage, biochemical parameters and free radical scavenging system in letrazole-induced rat model of PCOS. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty-two female Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into six groups. Group 1 (Control Group): after localizing the ovaries and the uterine horns, the abdominal wall was closed without any surgical procedure. Group 2 (PCOS Group): PCOS was induced by administrating Letrozole orally for 21 successive days. At the end of 21 days, rats underwent ovarian biopsies. The experimental PCOS model was considered successful in the presence of atretic follicles without granulosa cell stratification. Group 3 (PCOS + Nateglinide Group): Nateglinide was administered by oral dropper for 30 days to the rats in which PCOS model was created. Group 4 (Nateglinid only Group): 30 days of NG was applied to the rats without PCOS. Group 5 (PCOS+Octreotide Group): 0.1 mg/kg/day Octreotide was given intraperitoneally for 4 weeks to the rats in which PCOS model was created. Group 6 (Octreotide only Group): animals without PCOS given 0.1 mg/kg/day Octreotide at the end of the treatment, bilateral oophorectomy was performed and blood samples were collected from all groups. Ovarian tissue was stained immunohistochemically with TLR-4 in addition to conventional staining. In addition to follicle classification, ovarian damage was graded. Serum insulin, FSH and LH, TNF-α, IL-6, SHBG, SOD, IGF-1, MDA and GSH levels were also measured. RESULTS: The cystic and degenerated follicle density of PCOS group was high compared with the other groups. Both cystic and degenerated follicles were significantly reduced in PCOS+NG and PCOS+OC groups compared to PCOS group. There was no difference between the groups in terms of serum LH, FSH and insulin levels (p>0.05). Serum testosterone level was significantly higher in the PCOS group compared to the other groups (p<0.01). Adding OC or NG to PCOS groups did not cause significant changes in testosterone levels. TNF-α and IL-6 levels were high in PCOS group (p<0.03). IGF-1 and MDA levels were higher in PCOS than in other groups (p<0.03, p<0.01 respectively). Adding OC or NG to the treatment normalized IGF-1 and MDA levels. Serum GSH levels were significantly lower in the PCOS group (p<0.05). Adding NG to the treatment increased GSH levels. CONCLUSIONS: Both NG and OCT reverses atretic and degenerate follicle damage due to PCOS through TLR-4, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways.

Computational analysis and functional characterisation of Tor putitora toll-like receptor 4 with the elucidation of its binding sites for microbial mimicking ligands.

In the current study, full-length Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) cDNA was cloned and characterised in Tor putitora, an important fish inhibiting Himalayan rivers. The complete coding sequence of TpTLR4 is 2457 bp with nine key structural domains, including six leucine-rich repeats (LRRs). The phylogenetic tree revealed that TpTLR4 showed the closest relationship with TLR4 of Cyprinus carpio (96%), Labeo rohita (91%) and Megalobrama amblycephala (88%), all belonging to the Cyprinidae family. CELLO2GO tool revealed that TpTLR4 protein is highly localised in the plasma (67.7%), and the protein has a strong association with myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MYD88) followed by Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor (TRAF) family. In the toll-interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain of TpTLR4, the proline is replaced by the alanine amino acid, thus may give plasticity to the receptor to recognise both bacterial and viral ligands. Molecular docking has revealed that TpTLR4 showed the strongest affinity towards poly (I:C) with the binding energy of -6.1 kcal/mol and five hydrogen bonds among all ligands. Based on our molecular docking results, it can be presumed that TpTLR4 can sense bacterial, fungal and viral molecular patterns with binding sites mainly present in the TpTLR4 LRR9 motif, which spans between 515 and 602 amino acids. Tor putiora TLR4 transcript was ubiquitously expressed in all the tested fish tissues. Although, transcript level was found to be highest in blood and spleen followed by the kidney. The TpTLR4 transcripts showed peak expression in spleen and kidney at 12 h post-injection (hpi) (p < 0.05) of poly (I:C). The constitutive expression of TpTLR4 in various tissues, up-regulation in different tissues and strong binding affinities with poly (I:C) indicate that TpTLR4 may play an essential role in sensing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), particularly of viral origin.

Development of a Simple and Effective Lipid-A Antagonist Based on Computational Prediction.

Sepsis is a serious medical condition characterized by bacterial infection and a subsequent massive systemic inflammatory response. In an effort to identify compounds that block lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation reported herein is the development of simple Lipid-A analogues that lack a disaccharide core yet still possess potent antagonistic activity against LPS. The structure of the new lead compound was developed based on predictive computational experiments. LPS antagonism by the lead compound was not straightforward, and a biphasic effect was observed suggesting a possibility of more than one binding site. An IC50 value of 13 nM for the new compound was determined for the possible high affinity site. The combination of computational, synthetic, and biological studies revealed new structural determinants of these simplified analogues. It is expected that the acquired information will aid future design of LPS targeting glycopharmaceuticals.

In-silico evidences on filarial cystatin as a putative ligand of human TLR4.

Cystatin is a small molecular weight immunomodulatory protein of filarial parasite that plays a pivotal role in downregulating the host immune response to prolong the survival of the parasite inside the host body. Hitherto, this protein is familiar as an inhibitor of human proteases. However, growing evidences on the role of cystatin in regulating inflammatory homeostasis prompted us to investigate the molecular reasons behind the explicit anti-inflammatory trait of this protein. We have explored molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation approaches to explore the interaction of cystatin of Wuchereria bancrofti (causative parasite of human filariasis) with human Toll-like receptors (TLRs). TLRs are the most crucial component of frontline host defence against pathogenic infections including filarial infection. Our in-silico data clearly revealed that cystatin strongly interacts with the extracellular domain of TLR4 (binding energy=-93.5 ± 10 kJ/mol) and this biophysical interaction is mediated by hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interaction. Molecular dynamics simulation analysis revealed excellent stability of the cystatin-TLR4 complex. Taken together, our data indicated that cystatin appears to be a ligand of TLR4 and we hypothesize that cystatin-TLR4 interaction most likely to play a key role in activating the alternative activation pathways to establish an anti-inflammatory milieu. Thus, the study provokes the development of chemotherapeutics and/or vaccines for targeting the cystatin-TLR4 interaction to disrupt the pathological attributes of human lymphatic filariasis. Our findings are expected to provide a novel dimension to the existing knowledge on filarial immunopathogenesis and it will encourage the scientific communities for experimental validation of the present investigation. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Role of toll-like receptor 4 in diabetic retinopathy.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the most frequent microvascular complication of diabetes mellitus (DM) and a leading cause of blindness worldwide. Evidence has shown that DR is an inflammatory disease with hyperglycemia playing a causative role in the development of its main features, including inflammation, cellular apoptosis, neurodegeneration, oxidative stress, and neovascularization. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a well-known family of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) responsible for the initiation of inflammatory and immune responses. TLR4 identifies both endogenous and exogenous ligands and is associated with various physiological and pathological pathways in the body. While the detailed pathophysiology of DR is still unclear, increasing data suggests a crucial role for TLR4 in the development of DR. Due to hyperglycemia, TLR4 expression increases in diabetic retina, which activates various pathways leading to DR. Considering the role of TLR4 in DR, several studies have focused on the association of TLR4 polymorphisms and risk of DR development. Moreover, evidence concerning the effect of microRNAs in the pathogenesis of DR, through their interaction with TLR4, indicates the determinant role of TLR4 in this disease. Of note, several agents have proven as effective in alleviating DR through the inhibition of the TLR4 pathway, suggesting new avenues in DR treatment. In this review, we provided a brief overview of the TLR4 structure and biological function and a more comprehensive discussion about the mechanisms of TLR4 activation in DR. Furthermore, we summarized the relationship between TLR4 polymorphisms and risk of DR and the relationship between microRNAs and TLR4 in DR. Finally, we discussed the current progress in designing TLR4 inhibitors, which could be helpful in DR clinical management.

Porphyromonas gingivalis Mfa1 fimbria putatively binds to TLR2 and induces both IL-6 and IL-8 production in human bronchial epithelial cells.

Porphyromonas gingivalis (Pg) a major periodontal pathogen involved in periodontal disease development and progression. Moreover, Pg has two fimbriae surface proteins (FimA and Mfa1) that are genetically distinct and make-up the fimbrial shaft which in-turn form crucial attachment to oral bacteria and multiple host cells. However, unlike FimA, Mfa1 attachment to non-periodontal cells has not been fully elucidated. Considering Pg-associated periodontal disease contributes to pulmonary disease development, we investigated whether Mfa1 can functionally interact with human bronchial epithelial cells and, likewise, trigger a functional response. Initially, we simulated molecular docking and performed both luciferase and neutralization assays to confirm Mfa1-related functional interaction. Subsequently, we treated BEAS-2B cells with purified Mfa1 and performed cytokine quantification through real time-PCR and ELISA to establish Mfa1-related functional response. We found that both Mfa1-TLR2 and Mfa1-TLR4 docking is possible, however, only Mfa1-TLR2 showed a functional interaction. Additionally, we observed that both IL-8 and IL-6 gene expression and protein levels were induced confirming Mfa1-related functional response. Taken together, we propose that BEAS-2B human bronchial epithelial cells are able to recognize Pg Mfa1 and induce both IL-8 and IL-6 inflammatory responses.

Molecular Basis of Artemisinin Derivatives Inhibition of Myeloid Differentiation Protein 2 by Combined in Silico and Experimental Study.

Artemisinin (also known as Qinghaosu), an active component of the Qinghao extract, is widely used as antimalarial drug. Previous studies reveal that artemisinin and its derivatives also have effective anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, but the direct molecular target remains unknown. Recently, several reports mentioned that myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD-2, also known as lymphocyte antigen 96) may be the endogenous target of artemisinin in the inhibition of lipopolysaccharide signaling. However, the exact interaction between artemisinin and MD-2 is still not fully understood. Here, experimental and computational methods were employed to elucidate the relationship between the artemisinin and its inhibition mechanism. Experimental results showed that artemether exhibit higher anti-inflammatory activity performance than artemisinin and artesunate. Molecular docking results showed that artemisinin, artesunate, and artemether had similar binding poses, and all complexes remained stable throughout the whole molecular dynamics simulations, whereas the binding of artemisinin and its derivatives to MD-2 decreased the TLR4(Toll-Like Receptor 4)/MD-2 stability. Moreover, artemether exhibited lower binding energy as compared to artemisinin and artesunate, which is in good agreement with the experimental results. Leu61, Leu78, and Ile117 are indeed key residues that contribute to the binding free energy. Binding free energy analysis further confirmed that hydrophobic interactions were critical to maintain the binding mode of artemisinin and its derivatives with MD-2.

Ergosta-7, 9 (11), 22-trien-3ß-ol Interferes with LPS Docking to LBP, CD14, and TLR4/MD-2 Co-Receptors to Attenuate the NF-κB Inflammatory Pathway In Vitro and Drosophila.

Ergosta-7, 9 (11), 22-trien-3ß-ol (EK100) was isolated from Cordyceps militaris, which has been used as a traditional anti-inflammatory medicine. EK100 has been reported to attenuate inflammatory diseases, but its anti-inflammatory mechanism is still unclear. We were the first to investigate the effect of EK100 on the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor of the κ light chain enhancer of B cells (NF-κB) signaling in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and the green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labeled NF-κB reporter gene of Drosophila. EK100 suppressed the release of the cytokine and attenuated the mRNA and protein expression of pro-inflammatory mediators. EK100 inhibited the inhibitor kappa B (IκB)/NF-κB signaling pathway. EK100 also inhibited phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Protein kinase B (Akt) signal transduction. Moreover, EK100 interfered with LPS docking to the LPS-binding protein (LBP), transferred to the cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14), and bonded to TLR4/myeloid differentiation-2 (MD-2) co-receptors. Compared with the TLR4 antagonist, resatorvid (CLI-095), and dexamethasone (Dexa), EK100 suppressed the TLR4/AKT signaling pathway. In addition, we also confirmed that EK100 attenuated the GFP-labeled NF-κB reporter gene expression in Drosophila. In summary, EK100 might alter LPS docking to LBP, CD14, and TLR4/MD-2 co-receptors, and then it suppresses the TLR4/NF-κB inflammatory pathway in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and Drosophila.

Insights from molecular docking and molecular dynamics on the potential of vitexin as an antagonist candidate against lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for microglial activation in neuroinflammation.

BACKGROUND: Neuroinflammation has been identified to be the key player in most neurodegenerative diseases. If neuroinflammation is left to be unresolved, chronic neuroinflammation will be establish. Such situation is due to the overly-activated microglia which have the tendency to secrete an abundance amount of pro-inflammatory cytokines into the neuron microenvironment. The abundance of pro-inflammatory cytokines will later cause toxic and death to neurons. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/MD-2 complex found on the cell surface of microglia is responsible for the attachment of LPS and activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) downstream signalling pathway. Albeit vitexin has been shown to possess anti-inflammatory property, however, little is known on its ability to bind at the binding site of TLR4/MD-2 complex of microglia as well as to be an antagonist for LPS. RESULTS: The present study reveals that both vitexin and donepezil are able to bind at the close proximity of LPS binding site located at the TLR4/MD-2 complex with the binding energy of - 4.35 and - 9.14 kcal/mol, respectively. During molecular dynamic simulations, both vitexin and donepezil formed stable complex with TLR4/MD-2 throughout the 100 ns time length with the root mean square deviation (RMSD) values of 2.5 Å and 4.0 Å, respectively. The root mean square fluctuation (RMSF) reveals that both compounds are stable. Interestingly, the radius of gyration (rGyr) for donepezil shows notable fluctuations when compare with vitexin. The MM-GBSA results showed that vitexin has higher binding energy in comparison with donepezil. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, the findings suggest that vitexin is able to bind at the binding site of TLR4/MD-2 complex with more stability than donepezil throughout the course of 100 ns simulation. Hence, vitexin has the potential to be an antagonist candidate for LPS.