LncOCMRL1 promotes oral squamous cell carcinoma growth and metastasis via the RRM2/EMT pathway.

BACKGROUND: Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are widely involved in cancer development and progression, but the functions of most lncRNAs have not yet been elucidated. Metastasis is the main factor restricting the therapeutic outcomes of various cancer types, including oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Therefore, exploring the key lncRNAs that regulate OSCC metastasis and elucidating their molecular mechanisms will facilitate the development of new strategies for effective OSCC therapy. METHODS: We analyzed the lncRNA expression profiles of tumor tissues from OSCC patients with and without cervical lymph node metastasis, and OSCC cell lines. We revealed high expression of oral squamous cell carcinoma metastasis-related lncRNA 1 (lncOCMRL1) in OSCC patient tumor tissues with lymph node metastasis and highly metastatic OSCC cell lines. The effects of lncOCMRL1 knockdown on the invasion, migration and proliferation abilities of OSCC cells were explored through qRT-PCR, Transwell, colony formation, and cell proliferation experiments. The mechanism by which lncOCMRL1 promotes OSCC metastasis and proliferation was explored through RNA pull-down, silver staining, mass spectrometry, RIP, and WB experiments. To increase its translational potential, we developed a reduction-responsive nanodelivery system to deliver siRNA for antitumor therapy. RESULTS: We determined that lncOCMRL1 is highly expressed in OSCC metastatic tumor tissues and cells. Functional studies have shown that high lncOCMRL1 expression can promote the growth and metastasis of OSCC cells both in vivo and in vitro. Mechanistically, lncOCMRL1 could induce epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) via the suppression of RRM2 ubiquitination and thereby promote the proliferation, invasion, and migration of OSCC cells. We further constructed reduction-responsive nanoparticles (NPs) for the systemic delivery of siRNAs targeting lncOCMRL1 and demonstrated their high efficacy in silencing lncOCMRL1 expression in vivo and significantly inhibited OSCC tumor growth and metastasis. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that lncOCMRL1 is a reliable target for blocking lymph node metastasis in OSCC.

Identification of a new human senescent skin cell marker ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase subunit M2 B.

In skin aging, it has been hypothesized that aging fibroblasts accumulate within the epidermal basal layer, dermis, and subcutaneous fat, causing abnormal tissue remodeling and extracellular matrix dysfunction, thereby inducing an aging-related secretory phenotype (SASP). A new treatment for skin aging involves the specific elimination of senescent skin cells, especially fibroblasts within the dermis and keratinocytes in the basal layer. This requires the identification of specific protein markers of senescent cells, such as ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase subunit M2 B (RRM2B), which is upregulated in various malignancies in response to DNA stress damage. However, the behavior and role of RRM2B in skin aging remain unclear. Therefore, we examined whether RRM2B functions as a senescence marker using a human dermal fibroblast model of aging. In a model of cellular senescence induced by replicative aging and exposure to ionizing radiation or UVB, RRM2B was upregulated at the gene and protein levels. This was correlated with decreased uptake of the senescence-associated ß-galactosidase activity and proliferation marker bromodeoxyuridine. RRM2B upregulation was concurrent with the increased expression of SASP factor genes. Furthermore, using fluorescence flow cytometry, RRM2B-positive cells were recovered more frequently in the aging cell population. In aging human skin, RRM2B was also found to be more abundant in the dermis and epidermal basal layer than other proteins. Therefore, RRM2B may serve as a clinical marker to identify senescent skin cells.

Membrane RRM2-positive cells represent a malignant population with cancer stem cell features in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA) is one of the most lethal malignancies and highly heterogeneous. We thus aimed to identify and characterize iCCA cell subpopulations with severe malignant features. METHODS: Transcriptomic datasets from three independent iCCA cohorts (iCCA cohorts 1-3, n = 382) and formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissues from iCCA cohort 4 (n = 31) were used. An unbiased global screening strategy was established, including the transcriptome analysis with the activated malignancy/stemness (MS) signature in iCCA cohorts 1-3 and the mass spectrometry analysis of the sorted stemness reporter-positive iCCA cells. A group of cellular assays and subcutaneous tumor xenograft assay were performed to investigate functional roles of the candidate. Immunohistochemistry was performed in iCCA cohort 4 to examine the expression and localization of the candidate. Molecular and biochemical assays were used to evaluate the membrane localization and functional protein domains of the candidate. Cell sorting was performed and the corresponding cellular molecular assays were utilized to examine cancer stem cell features of the sorted cells. RESULTS: The unbiased global screening identified RRM2 as the top candidate, with a significantly higher level in iCCA patients with the MS signature activation and in iCCA cells positive for the stemness reporter. Consistently, silencing RRM2 significantly suppressed iCCA malignancy phenotypes both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, immunohistochemistry in tumor tissues of iCCA patients revealed an unreported cell membrane localization of RRM2, in contrast to its usual cytoplasmic localization. RRM2 cell membrane localization was then confirmed in iCCA cells via immunofluorescence with or without cell membrane permeabilization, cell fractionation assay and cell surface biotinylation assay. Meanwhile, an unclassical signal peptide and a transmembrane domain of RRM2 were revealed experimentally. They were essential for RRM2 trafficking to cell membrane via the conventional endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-Golgi secretory pathway. Furthermore, the membrane RRM2-positive iCCA cells were successfully sorted. These cells possessed significant cancer stem cell malignant features including cell differentiation ability, self-renewal ability, tumor initiation ability, and stemness/malignancy gene signatures. Patients with membrane RRM2-positive iCCA cells had poor prognosis. CONCLUSIONS: RRM2 had an alternative cell membrane localization. The membrane RRM2-positive iCCA cells represented a malignant subpopulation with cancer stem cell features.

Small Nuclear Ribonucleoprotein Polypeptides B and B1 Promote Osteosarcoma Progression via Activating the Ataxia-Telangiectasia Mutated Signaling Pathway through Ribonucleotide Reductase Subunit M2.

Osteosarcoma is a malignant bone tumor characterized by high metastatic potential and recurrence rates after therapy. The small nuclear ribonucleoprotein polypeptides B and B1 (SNRPB), core components of a spliceosome, exhibit up-regulation across several cancer types. However, the precise role of SNRPB in osteosarcoma progression remains poorly elucidated. Herein, SNRPB expression was explored in human osteosarcoma tissues and normal bone tissues by immunohistochemical staining, revealing a notable up-regulation of SNRPB in osteosarcoma, correlating with diminished survival rates. The in vitro loss-of-function experiments showed that SNRPB knockdown significantly suppressed the osteosarcoma cell proliferation and migration, as well as tubule formation of human umbilical vascular endothelial cells, while enhancing osteosarcoma cell apoptosis. Mechanistically, SNRPB promoted the transcription of ribonucleotide reductase subunit M2 via E2F transcription factor 1. Further rescue experiments indicated that ribonucleotide reductase subunit M2 was required for SNRPB-induced malignant behaviors in osteosarcoma. Additionally, the function of SNRPB in osteosarcoma cell growth and apoptosis was confirmed to be associated with ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) signaling pathway activation. In conclusion, these findings provide initial insights into the underlying mechanisms governing SNRPB-induced osteosarcoma progression, and we propose SNRPB as a novel therapeutic target in osteosarcoma management.

YBX1 as a therapeutic target to suppress the LRP1-ß-catenin-RRM1 axis and overcome gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is highly malignant and has a poor prognosis, without effective therapeutic targets in common gene mutations. Gemcitabine, a first-line chemotherapeutic for PDAC, confers <10 % 5-year survival rate because of drug resistance. Y-box binding protein 1 (YBX1), associated with multidrug-resistance gene activation, remains unelucidated in PDAC gemcitabine resistance. In vivo and in vitro, we verified YBX1's promotional effects, especially gemcitabine resistance, in pancreatic cancer cells. YBX1-induced LRP1 transcription by binding to the LRP1 promoter region significantly altered the concentration and distribution of ß-catenin in pancreatic cancer cells. Through TCF3, ß-catenin bound to the promoter region of RRM1, a key gene for gemcitabine resistance, that promotes RRM1 expression. Combination therapy with the YBX1 inhibitor SU056 and gemcitabine effectively reduced gemcitabine resistance in in vivo and in vitro experiments. High YBX1 expression promoted pathogenesis and gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer through the YBX1-LRP1-ß-catenin-RRM1 axis. Combining YBX1 inhibitors with gemcitabine may provide a new direction for combination chemotherapy to overcome gemcitabine resistance, which frequently occurs during chemotherapy for pancreatic cancer.

[Ferroptosis suppressor genes are highly expressed in esophageal cancer to inhibit tumor cell ferroptosis].

OBJECTIVE: To explore the role of ferroptosis-related genes in regulating ferroptosis of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). METHODS: ESCC datasets GSE161533 and GSE20347 were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) to identify the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) using R software. ESCC ferroptosis-related genes obtained by intersecting the DEGs with ferroptosis-related genes from FerrDb were analyzed using GO and KEGG analyses, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis, and core gene identification through Cytoscape. The identified ferroptosis suppressor genes were validated using TCGA database, and their expression levels were detected using RT-qPCR in cultured normal esophageal cells and ESCC cells. Six ferroptosis suppressor genes (RRM2, GCLC, TFRC, TXN, SLC7A11, and EZH2) were downregulated with siRNA in ESCC cells, and the changes in cell proliferation and apoptosis were assessed with CCK8 assay and flow cytometry; Western blotting was performed to examine the changes in ferroptosis progression of the cells. RESULTS: We identified a total of 58 ESCC ferroptosis-related genes, which involved such biological processes as glutathione transmembrane transport, iron ion transport, and apoptosis and the ferroptosis, glutathione metabolism, and antifolate resistance pathways. The PPI network included 54 nodes and 74 edges with a clustering coefficient of 0.522 and PPI enrichment P<0.001. Cytoscape identified 6 core ferroptosis suppressor genes (RRM2, TFRC, TXN, EZH2, SLC7A11, and GCLC), which were highly expressed in ESCC tissues in the TCGA dataset and in ESCC cell lines. Downregulating these genes in ESCC TE1 cells significantly inhibited cell proliferation, promoted cell apoptosis, reduced the expression levels of ferroptosis markers GPX4 and FIH1, and increased the expression of ACSL4. CONCLUSION: High expression of ferroptosis suppressor genes in ESCC may cause arrest of ferroptosis progression to facilitate tumor development, and inhibiting these genes can restore ferroptosis and promote cell apoptosis, suggesting their value as potential therapeutic targets for ESCC.

IGF2BP3 regulates the expression of RRM2 and promotes the progression of rheumatoid arthritis via RRM2/Akt/MMP-9 pathway.

BACKGROUND: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common inflammatory and autoimmune disease. Ribonucleotide Reductase Regulatory Subunit M2 (RRM2) is a crucial and a rate-limiting enzyme responsible for deoxynucleotide triphosphate(dNTP) production. We have found a high expression level of RRM2 in patients with RA, but the molecular mechanism of its action remains unclear. METHODS: We analyzed the expression of hub genes in RA using GSE77298 datasets downloaded from Gene Expression Omnibus database. RRM2 and insulin-like growth factor-2 messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)-binding protein 3 (IGF2BP3) gene knockdown was achieved by infection with lentiviruses. The expression of RRM2, IGF2BP3, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1, and MMP-9 were detected via western blotting assay. Cell viability was detected via 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. MeRIP-qRT-PCR was performed to test the interaction of IGF2BP3 and RRM2 mRNA via m6A modification. Cell proliferation was determined by clone formation assay. Migration and invasion assays were performed using transwell Boyden chamber. RESULTS: RRM2 and IGF2BP3 were highly expressed in clinical specimens and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-1ß-stimulated synovial cells. RRM2 and IGF2BP3 knockdown inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of MH7A cells. The inhibitory effects of IGF2BP3 knockdown were effectively reversed by simultaneously overexpressing RRM2 in MH7A cells. By analyzing N6-methyladenosine (m6A)2Target database, five m6A regulatory target binding sites for IGF2BP3 were identified in RRM2 mRNA, suggesting a direct relationship between IGF2BP3 and RRM2 mRNA. Additionally, in RRM2 small hairpin (sh)RNA lentivirus-infected cells, the levels of phosphorylated Akt and MMP-9 were significantly decreased compared with control shRNA lentivirus-infected cells. CONCLUSION: The present study demonstrated that RRM2 promoted the Akt phosphorylation leading to high expression of MMP-9 to promote the migration and invasive capacities of MH7A cells. Overall, IGF2BP promotes the expression of RRM2, and regulates the migration and invasion of MH7A cells via Akt/MMP-9 pathway to promote RA progression.

RRM2 Is a CTNNB1 Transport Regulator Promoting Colon Cancer Progression.

BACKGROUND/AIM: The cytoplasmic retention and stabilization of CTNNB1 (ß-catenin) in response to Wnt is well documented in playing a role in tumor growth. Here, through the utilization of a multiplex siRNA library screening strategy, we investigated the modulation of CTNNB1 function in tumor cell progression by ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase subunit M2 (RRM2). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a multiplex siRNA screening assay to identify targets involved in CTNNB1 nuclear translocation. In order to examine the effect of inhibition of RRM2, selected from the siRNA screening results, we performed RRM2 knockdown and assayed for colon cancer cell viability, sphere formation assay, and invasion assay. The interaction of RRM2 with CTNNB1 and its impact on oncogenesis was examined using immunoprecipitation, immunoblotting, immunocytochemistry, and RT-qPCR. RESULTS: After a series of screening and filtration steps, we identified 26 genes that were potentially involved in CTNNB1 nuclear translocation. All candidate genes were validated in various cell lines. The results revealed that siRNA-mediated knockdown of RRM2 reduces the nuclear translocation of CTNNB1. This reduction was accompanied by a decrease in cell count, resulting in a suppressive effect on tumor cell growth. CONCLUSION: High throughput siRNA screening is an attractive strategy for identifying gene functions in cancers and the interaction between RRM2 and CTNNB1 is an attractive drug target for regulating RRM2-CTNNB1-related pathways in cancers.

The thioredoxin system determines CHK1 inhibitor sensitivity via redox-mediated regulation of ribonucleotide reductase activity.

Checkpoint kinase 1 (CHK1) is critical for cell survival under replication stress (RS). CHK1 inhibitors (CHK1i's) in combination with chemotherapy have shown promising results in preclinical studies but have displayed minimal efficacy with substantial toxicity in clinical trials. To explore combinatorial strategies that can overcome these limitations, we perform an unbiased high-throughput screen in a non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell line and identify thioredoxin1 (Trx1), a major component of the mammalian antioxidant-system, as a determinant of CHK1i sensitivity. We establish a role for redox recycling of RRM1, the larger subunit of ribonucleotide reductase (RNR), and a depletion of the deoxynucleotide pool in this Trx1-mediated CHK1i sensitivity. Further, the TrxR inhibitor auranofin, an approved anti-rheumatoid arthritis drug, shows a synergistic interaction with CHK1i via interruption of the deoxynucleotide pool. Together, we show a pharmacological combination to treat NSCLC that relies on a redox regulatory link between the Trx system and mammalian RNR activity.

Physical interactions between specifically regulated subpopulations of the MCM and RNR complexes prevent genetic instability.

The helicase MCM and the ribonucleotide reductase RNR are the complexes that provide the substrates (ssDNA templates and dNTPs, respectively) for DNA replication. Here, we demonstrate that MCM interacts physically with RNR and some of its regulators, including the kinase Dun1. These physical interactions encompass small subpopulations of MCM and RNR, are independent of the major subcellular locations of these two complexes, augment in response to DNA damage and, in the case of the Rnr2 and Rnr4 subunits of RNR, depend on Dun1. Partial disruption of the MCM/RNR interactions impairs the release of Rad52 -but not RPA-from the DNA repair centers despite the lesions are repaired, a phenotype that is associated with hypermutagenesis but not with alterations in the levels of dNTPs. These results suggest that a specifically regulated pool of MCM and RNR complexes plays non-canonical roles in genetic stability preventing persistent Rad52 centers and hypermutagenesis.

Inhibition of ribonucleotide reductase subunit M2 enhances the radiosensitivity of metastatic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor.

Ribonucleotide Reductase (RNR) is a rate-limiting enzyme in the production of deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs), which are essential substrates for DNA repair after radiation damage. We explored the radiosensitization property of RNR and investigated a selective RRM2 inhibitor, 3-AP, as a radiosensitizer in the treatment of metastatic pNETs. We investigated the role of RNR subunit, RRM2, in pancreatic neuroendocrine (pNET) cells and responses to radiation in vitro. We also evaluated the selective RRM2 subunit inhibitor, 3-AP, as a radiosensitizer to treat pNET metastases in vivo. Knockdown of RNR subunits demonstrated that RRM1 and RRM2 subunits, but not p53R3, play significant roles in cell proliferation. RRM2 inhibition activated DDR pathways through phosphorylation of ATM and DNA-PK protein kinases but not ATR. RRM2 inhibition also induced Chk1 and Chk2 phosphorylation, resulting in G1/S phase cell cycle arrest. RRM2 inhibition sensitized pNET cells to radiotherapy and induced apoptosis in vitro. In vivo, we utilized pNET subcutaneous and lung metastasis models to examine the rationale for RNR-targeted therapy and 3-AP as a radiosensitizer in treating pNETs. Combination treatment significantly increased apoptosis of BON (human pNET) xenografts and significantly reduced the burden of lung metastases. Together, our results demonstrate that selective RRM2 inhibition induced radiosensitivity of metastatic pNETs both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, treatment with the selective RRM2 inhibitor, 3-AP, is a promising radiosensitizer in the therapeutic armamentarium for metastatic pNETs.

GINS2 promotes the progression of human HNSCC by altering RRM2 expression.

INTRODUCTION: GINS2 exerts a carcinogenic effect in multiple human malignancies, while it is still unclear that the potential roles and underlying mechanisms of GINS2 in HNSCC. METHODS: TCGA database was used to screen out genes with significant differences in expression in HNSCC. Immunohistochemistry and qRT-PCR were used to measure the expression of GINS2 in HNSCC tissues and cells. GINS2 was detected by qRT-PCR or western blot after knockdown or overexpression. Celigo cell counting, MTT, colony formation, and flow cytometric assay were used to check the ability of proliferation and apoptosis. Bioinformatics and microarray were used to screen out the downstream genes of GINS2. RESULTS: GINS2 in HNSCC tissues and cells was up-regulated, which was correlated with poor prognosis. GINS2 gene expression was successfully inhibited and overexpressed in HNSCC cells. Knockdown of GINS2 could inhibit proliferation and increase apoptosis of cells. Meanwhile, overexpression of GINS2 could enhance cell proliferation and colony formation. Knockdown of RRM2 may inhibit HNSCC cell proliferation, while overexpression of RRM2 rescued the effect of reducing GINS2 expression. CONCLUSION: Our study reported the role of GINS2 in HNSCC for the first time. The results demonstrated that in HNSCC cells, GINS2 promoted proliferation and inhibited apoptosis via altering RRM2 expression. Therefore, GINS2 might play a carcinogen in HNSCC, and become a specific promising therapeutic target.

Identification of RRM2 as a key ferroptosis-related gene in sepsis.

OBJECTIVE: Sepsis and sepsis-associated organ failure are devastating conditions for which there are no effective therapeutic agent. Several studies have demonstrated the significance of ferroptosis in sepsis. The study aimed to identify ferroptosis-related genes (FRGs) in sepsis, providing potential therapeutic targets. METHODS: The weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was utilized to screen sepsis-associated genes. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses were used to explore gene functions. Three machine learning methods were employed to identify sepsis-related hub genes. Survival and multivariate Cox regression analysis allowed further screening for the key gene RRM2 associated with prognosis. The immune infiltration analysis of the screened sepsis key genes was performed. Additionally, a cecum ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced mouse sepsis model was constructed to validate the expression of key gene in the sepsis. RESULTS: Six sepsis-associated differentially expressed FRGs (RRM2, RPL7A, HNRNPA1, PEBP1, MYL8B and TXNIP) were screened by WGCNA and three machine learning methods analysis. Survival analysis and multivariate Cox regression analysis showed that RRM2 was a key gene in sepsis and an independent prognostic factor associated with clinicopathological and molecular features of sepsis. Immune cell infiltration analysis demonstrated that RRM2 had a connection to various immune cells, such as CD4 T cells and neutrophils. Furthermore, animal experiment demonstrated that RRM2 was highly expressed in CLP-induced septic mice, and the use of Fer-1 significantly inhibited RRM2 expression, inhibited serum inflammatory factor TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1ß expression, ameliorated intestinal injury and improved survival in septic mice. CONCLUSION: RRM2 plays an important role in sepsis and may contribute to sepsis through the ferroptosis pathway. This study provides potential therapeutic targets for sepsis.

Critical role for ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase subunit M2 in ALV-J-induced activation of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling via interaction with P27.

Avian leukemia virus subgroup J (ALV-J) causes various diseases associated with tumor formation and decreased fertility and induced immunosuppressive disease, resulting in significant economic losses in the poultry industry globally. Virus usually exploits the host cellular machinery for their replication. Although there are increasing evidences for the cellular proteins involving viral replication, the interaction between ALV-J and host proteins leading to the pivotal steps of viral life cycle are still unclear. Here, we reported that ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase subunit M2 (RRM2) plays a critical role during ALV-J infection by interacting with capsid protein P27 and activating Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. We found that the expression of RRM2 is effectively increased during ALV-J infection, and that RRM2 facilitates ALV-J replication by interacting with viral capsid protein P27. Furthermore, ALV-J P27 activated Wnt/ß-catenin signaling by promoting ß-catenin entry into the nucleus, and RRM2 activated Wnt/ß-catenin signaling by enhancing its phosphorylation at Ser18 during ALV-J infection. These data suggest that the upregulation of RRM2 expression by ALV-J infection favors viral replication in host cells via activating Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. IMPORTANCE Our results revealed a novel mechanism by which RRM2 facilitates ALV-J growth. That is, the upregulation of RRM2 expression by ALV-J infection favors viral replication by interacting with capsid protein P27 and activating Wnt/ß-catenin pathway in host cells. Furthermore, the phosphorylation of serine at position 18 of RRM2 was verified to be the important factor regulating the activation of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. This study provides insights for further studies of the molecular mechanism of ALV-J infection.

Prognostic and Immunological Potential of Ribonucleotide Reductase Subunits in Liver Cancer.

Background: Ribonucleotide reductase (RR) consists of two subunits, the large subunit RRM1 and the small subunit (RRM2 or RRM2B), which is essential for DNA replication. Dysregulations of RR were implicated in multiple types of cancer. However, the abnormal expressions and biologic functions of RR subunits in liver cancer remain to be elucidated. Methods: TCGA, HCCDB, CCLE, HPA, cBioPortal, and GeneMANIA were utilized to perform bioinformatics analysis of RR subunits in the liver cancer. GO, KEGG, and GSEA were used for enrichment analysis. Results: The expressions of RRM1, RRM2, and RRM2B were remarkably upregulated among liver cancer tissue both in mRNA and protein levels. High expression of RRM1 and RRM2 was notably associated with high tumor grade, high stage, short overall survival, and disease-specific survival. Enrichment analyses indicated that RRM1 and RRM2 were related to DNA replication, cell cycle, regulation of nuclear division, DNA repair, and DNA recombination. Correlation analysis indicated that RRM1 and RRM2 were significantly associated with several subsets of immune cell, including Th2 cells, cytotoxic cells, and neutrophils. RRM2B expression was positively associated with immune score and stromal score. Chemosensitivity analysis revealed that sensitivity of nelarabine was positively associated with high expressions of RRM1 and RRM2. The sensitivity of rapamycin was positively associated with high expressions of RRM2B. Conclusion: Our findings demonstrated high expression profiles of RR subunits in liver cancer, which may provide novel insights for predicting the poor prognosis and increased chemosensitivity of liver cancer in clinic.

ARID1A promotes chemosensitivity to gemcitabine in pancreatic cancer through epigenetic silencing of RRM2.

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most common malignancies with very poor prognosis due to its broad resistance to chemotherapy. ARID1A, a subunit of SWI/SNF complex, is involved in pancreatic carcinogenesis through epigenetic silencing of oncogenes. In this study, we aimed to explore whether ARID1A was implicated in the gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer patients via regulating RRM2. We examined the effect of ARID1A depletion on the gemcitabine sensitivity in pancreatic cancer cells and explored the role of RRM2 in ARID1A-mediated pancreatic cancer cells chemosensitivity to gemcitabine. We found that Knockout of ARID1A led to gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer cells, effect of which could be reversed by RRM2, a gemcitabine resistance related gene. ARID1A decreased the transcription of RRM2, and directly bound to the promoter of RRM2. Moreover, expression of RRM2 was negatively correlated with ARID1A in pancreatic cancer tissues. Thus, ARID1A-mediated RRM2 epigenetic suppression is crucial for enhancement of pancreatic cancer chemosensitivity to gemcitabine, and ARID1A could be used as a biomarker to guide the gemcitabine chemotherapy of pancreatic cancer.

Comprehensive bioinformatics analysis of ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase subunit M2(RRM2) gene correlates with prognosis and tumor immunotherapy in pan-cancer.

Ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) small subunit M2 (RRM2) levels are known to regulate the activity of RNR, a rate-limiting enzyme in the synthesis of deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs) and essential for both DNA replication and repair. The high expression of RRM2 enhances the proliferation of cancer cells, thereby implicating its role as an anti-cancer agent. However, little research has been performed on its role in the prognosis of different types of cancers. This pan-cancer study aimed to evaluate the effect of high expression of RRM2 the tumor prognosis based on clinical information collected from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and The Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) databases. We found RRM2 gene was highly expressed in 30 types of cancers. And we performed a pan-cancer analysis of the genetic alteration status and methylation of RRM2. Results indicated that RRM2 existed hypermethylation, associated with m6A, m1A, and m5C related genes. Subsequently, we explored the microRNAs (miRNA), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA), and the transcription factors responsible for the high expression of RRM2 in cancer cells. Results indicated that has-miR-125b-5p and has-miR-30a-5p regulated the expression of RRM2 along with transcription factors, such as CBFB, E2F1, and FOXM. Besides, we established the competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) diagram of lncRNAs-miRNAs-circular RNAs (circRNA) involved in the regulation of RRM2 expression. Meanwhile, our study demonstrated that high-RRM2 levels correlated with patients' worse prognosis survival and immunotherapy effects through the consensus clustering and risk scores analysis. Finally, we found RRM2 regulated the resistance of immune checkpoint inhibitors through the PI3K-AKT single pathways. Collectively, our findings elucidated that high expression of RRM2 correlates with prognosis and tumor immunotherapy in pan-cancer. Moreover, these findings may provide insights for further investigation of the RRM2 gene as a biomarker in predicting immunotherapy's response and therapeutic target.

Novel human-derived EML4-ALK fusion cell lines identify ribonucleotide reductase RRM2 as a target of activated ALK in NSCLC.

INTRODUCTION: Echinoderm microtubule-associated protein-like 4 (EML4)-Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase (ALK) rearrangements occur in 3% to 7% of lung adenocarcinomas and are targets for treatment with tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Here we have developed three novel EML4-ALK-positive patient-derived Non-Small-Cell-Lung-Cancer (NSCLC) cancer cell lines, CUTO8 (variant 1), CUTO9 (variant 1) and CUTO29 (variant 3) and included a fourth ALK-positive cell line YU1077 (variant 3) to study ALK-positive signaling and responses. Variants 1 and 3 are the most common EML4-ALK variants expressed in ALK-positive NSCLC, and currently cell lines representing these EML4-ALK variants are limited. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Resazurin assay was performed to evaluate cell viability. Protein levels were determined using western blotting. RNA sequencing was performed in all four cell lines to identify differentially expressed genes. Whole-genome sequencing was performed to determine the presence of EML4-ALK fusion and ALK tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance mutations. RESULTS: In this study, we have confirmed expression of the corresponding ALK fusion protein and assessed their sensitivity to a range of ALK tyrosine kinase inhibitors. These patient derived cell lines exhibit differential sensitivity to lorlatinib, brigatinib and alectinib, with EML4-ALK variant 3 containing cell lines exhibiting increased sensitivity to lorlatinib and brigatinib as compared to alectinib. These cell lines were further characterized by whole genome sequencing and RNA-seq analysis that identified the ribonucleotide reductase regulatory subunit 2 (RRM2) as a downstream and potential therapeutic target in ALK-positive NSCLC. CONCLUSION: We provide a characterization of four novel EML4-ALK-positive NSCLC cell lines, highlighting genomic heterogeneity and differential responses to ALK TKI treatment. The RNA-Seq characterization of ALK-positive NSCLC CUTO8, CUTO9, CUTO29 and YU1077 cell lines reported here, has been compiled in an interactive ShinyApp resource for public data exploration (https://ccgg.ugent.be/shiny/nsclc_rrm2_2022/).

E2F2 enhances the chemoresistance of pancreatic cancer to gemcitabine by regulating the cell cycle and upregulating the expression of RRM2.

Both pro-oncogenic and anti-oncogenic effects of E2F2 have been revealed in different malignancies. However, the precise role of E2F2 in pancreatic cancer, in particular in relation to therapeutic intervention with gemcitabine, remains unclear. In this study, the effect of E2F2 on the proliferation and cell cycle modulation of pancreatic cancer cells, and whether E2F2 plays a role in the treatment of pancreatic cancer cells by gemcitabine, were investigated. The expression of E2F2 in pancreatic cancer was assessed by various methods including bioinformatics prediction, Western blotting, and real-time PCR. The effect of E2F2 on the proliferation and cell cycling of pancreatic cancer cells was analyzed by tissue culture and flow cytometry. In addition, the effect of E2F2 on the intervention of pancreatic cancer by gemcitabine was investigated using both in vitro and in vivo approaches. The expression of E2F2 was found to be significantly increased in pancreatic cancer tissues and cell lines. The pathogenic capacity of E2F2 lied in the fact that this transcription factor promoted the transformation of pancreatic cancer cell cycle from G1-phase to S-phase, thus enhancing the proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells. Furthermore, the expression of E2F2 was increased in pancreatic cancer cells in the presence of gemcitabine, and the augmented expression of E2F2 upregulated the gemcitabine resistance-related gene RRM2 and its downstream signaling molecule deoxycytidine kinase (DCK). The resistance of pancreatic cancer cells to gemcitabine was confirmed using both in vitro and in vivo models. In this study, E2F2 has been demonstrated for the first time to play a pro-oncogenic role in pancreatic cancer by promoting the transition of the cell cycle from G1-phase to S-phase and, therefore, enhancing the proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells. E2F2 has also been demonstrated to enhance the chemotherapy resistance of pancreatic cancer cells to gemcitabine by upregulating the expression of RRM2 and DCK that is downstream of RRM2.

RRM1 variants cause a mitochondrial DNA maintenance disorder via impaired de novo nucleotide synthesis.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) depletion/deletions syndromes (MDDS) encompass a clinically and etiologically heterogenous group of mitochondrial disorders caused by impaired mtDNA maintenance. Among the most frequent causes of MDDS are defects in nucleoside/nucleotide metabolism, which is critical for synthesis and homeostasis of the deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) substrates of mtDNA replication. A central enzyme for generating dNTPs is ribonucleotide reductase, a critical mediator of de novo nucleotide synthesis composed of catalytic RRM1 subunits in complex with RRM2 or p53R2. Here, we report 5 probands from 4 families who presented with ptosis and ophthalmoplegia as well as other clinical manifestations and multiple mtDNA deletions in muscle. We identified 3 RRM1 loss-of-function variants, including a dominant catalytic site variant (NP_001024.1: p.N427K) and 2 homozygous recessive variants at p.R381, which has evolutionarily conserved interactions with the specificity site. Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations indicate mechanisms by which RRM1 variants affect protein structure. Cultured primary skin fibroblasts of probands manifested mtDNA depletion under cycling conditions, indicating impaired de novo nucleotide synthesis. Fibroblasts also exhibited aberrant nucleoside diphosphate and dNTP pools and mtDNA ribonucleotide incorporation. Our data reveal that primary RRM1 deficiency and, by extension, impaired de novo nucleotide synthesis are causes of MDDS.