Influence of polyethylene-type microplastics on long-term exposure to heavy metals in freshwater phytoplankton.

The use of plastic materials has brought about significant social benefits but has also led to negative consequences, particularly their accumulation in aquatic environments. Studies have shown that small plastic particles, known as microplastics (MPs), can carry various harmful pollutants, such as heavy metals (HMs). Therefore, the aim of this research is to investigate the impact of polyethylene-type MPs on the long-term exposure of different HMs on freshwater microalgae Scenedesmus armatus and cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa, in both isolated cultures and phytoplanktonic community conditions. Over a period of 28 days, the strains were subjected to concentrations of Ag+, Cu+2, and Cr+6 corresponding to their respective 72 h-EC10, with or without the presence of MPs. Throughout this period, the growth cell ratio, photosynthetic activity, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were monitored. The findings indicated a substantial inhibitory impact on cell growth during the initial 7-14 days of exposure, followed by a reduction until reaching values like the controls after 28 days of exposure. There was a disturbance in photosynthetic activity during the first 72 h of exposure, which gradually returned to control levels, mainly significantly affected the respiration phase. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) activity was also affected during the initial 14 days of exposure. The presence or absence of MPs in the culture medium did not significantly alter the observed effects. However, interspecies competition created a more favorable environment for M. aeruginosa over the freshwater microalgae S. armatus. These findings suggest that the formation of MP-HMs complexes may have a limited impact on reducing the adverse effects of HMs in long-term exposures. However, because the impact depends on the specific HM involved, further studies are needed to gain a better understanding of the interaction between these pollutants.

Exploring phosphate impact on arsenate uptake and distribution in freshwater phytoplankton: Insights from single-cell ICP-MS.

In this study, we investigated the interaction between arsenate (AsV) and phosphate (PO43-) in freshwater phytoplankton using single-cell inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SC-ICP-MS). This study aimed to elucidate the influence of varying PO43- concentrations on arsenic (As) uptake and distribution at the single-cell level, providing insights into intraspecies diversity. Two species of freshwater phytoplanktons, Scenedesmus acutus and Pediastrum duplex, were cultured under different concentrations of PO43- and AsV in a controlled laboratory environment. Scenedesmus acutus, a species with strong salt tolerance, and Pediastrum duplex, known for its weak salt tolerance, were selected based on their contrasting behaviors in previous studies. SC-ICP-MS revealed non-uniform uptake of As by individual phytoplankton cells, with distinct variations in response to PO43- availability. Arsenic uptake by both species declined with a high PO43- level after 7 days of exposure. However, after 14 days, As uptake increased in S. acutus with higher PO43- concentrations, but decreased in P. duplex. Moreover, our findings revealed differences in cell morphology and membrane integrity between the two species in response to AsV and various PO43- concentrations. S. acutus maintained cell integrity under all experimental culture conditions, whereas P. duplex experienced cell lysis at elevated AsV and PO43- concentrations. This study highlights the varying responses of freshwater phytoplankton to changes in AsV and PO43- levels and underscores the advantages of SC-ICP-MS over conventional ICP-MS in providing detailed, cellular level insights. These findings are crucial for understanding and managing As pollution in aquatic ecosystems.

Mechanistic insights into the potential application of Scenedesmus strains towards the elimination of antibiotics from wastewater.

Scenedesmus strains have been reported to have the potential to tolerate and bioremediate antibiotic pollutants through bioadsorption, bioaccumulation, and biodegradation mechanism from the wastewater medium. Hormesis effects have been observed in the Scenedesmus strains when exposed to different concentrations of antibiotic pollutants. Lower concentrations of antibiotic pollutants are known to trigger growth-stimulating effects by triggering adaptive responses such as increased metabolic activity and activating detoxifying mechanisms leading to the biotransformation pathway. The present review examines the existing body of information pertaining to biotransformation pathways tolerance, hormesis effects, and efficiency of Scenedesmus strains in removing various antibiotic pollutants. This review provides critical information on using Scenedesmus species to treat antibiotic-polluted wastewater by boosting growth and resilience tolerant doses and avoiding toxicity at higher doses.

Microplastics with different functional groups modulate cellular and molecular mechanisms of reduced graphene oxide toxicity on the green microalga, Scenedesmus obliquus.

Even though microplastics (MPs) and graphene nanomaterials (GNMs) have demonstrated individual toxicity towards aquatic organisms, the knowledge gap lies in the lack of understanding regarding their combined toxicity. The difference between the combined toxicity of MPs and GNMs, in contrast to their individual toxicities, and furthermore, the elucidation of the mechanism of this combined toxicity are scientific questions that remain to be addressed. In this study, we examined the individual and combined toxicity of three polystyrene microplastics (MPs) with different functional groups-unmodified, carboxyl-modified (COOH-), and amino-modified (NH2-) MPs-in combination with reduced graphene oxide (RGO) on the freshwater microalga Scenedesmus obliquus. More importantly, we explored the cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for the observed toxicity. The results indicated that the growth inhibition toxicity of RGO, either alone or in combination with the three MPs, against S. obliquus increased gradually with higher particle concentrations. The mitigating effect of MPs-NH2 on RGO-induced toxicity was most significant at a higher concentration, surpassing the effect of unmodified MPs. However, the MPs-COOH did not exhibit a substantial impact on the toxicity of RGO. Unmodified MPs and MPs-COOH aggravated the inhibition effects of RGO on the cell membrane integrity and oxidative stress-related biomarkers. Additionally, MPs-COOH exhibited a stronger inhibition effect on RGO-induced biomarkers compared to unmodified MPs. In contrast, the MPs-NH2 alleviated the inhibition effect of RGO on the biomarkers. Furthermore, the presence of differently functionalized MPs did not significantly affect RGO-induced oxidative stress and photosynthesis-related gene expression in S. obliquus, indicating a limited ability to modulate RGO genotoxicity at the molecular level. These findings can offer a more accurate understanding of the combined risks posed by these micro- and nano-materials and assist in designing more effective mitigation strategies.

Release kinetic study of microplastics from N95 face masks and consequent effects on freshwater alga Scenedesmus obliquus.

The uncontrolled disposal of N95 face masks, widely used during the recent COVID-19 pandemic can release significant amounts of microplastics and other additives into aquatic bodies. This study aimed to: (i) to quantify and analyze the released microplastics and heavy metals from N95 face masks weathered for various time periods (24, 48, 72, 96, 120, and 144 h) and (ii) to assess the cytotoxicity potential of the leachates on a model organism, freshwater alga Scenedesmus obliquus. The mask leachates contained microplastics, polypropylene in different shapes and sizes, and heavy metals like Cu, Cd, and Zn. The leachates significantly reduced cell viability and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, antioxidant enzyme activity, and membrane damage. The effects were also accompanied by a significant drop in the photosynthetic yield. All of the examined parameters indicated a dose-response relationship, with longer leaching periods resulting in higher microplastic concentrations. Mask leachates severely damaged the structural integrity of the algal cells, as seen in scanning electron microscopy images. The findings of our study confirm that the releases from disposable N95 face masks pose a severe threat to freshwater microalgae, and the cascading effects would harm the aquatic ecosystems.

Inhibitory effects of toxic Dolichospermum flos-aquae and anatoxin-a on inducible defenses of Daphnia magna.

Cyanobacterial blooms, resulting from serious eutrophication, can produce various cyanotoxins and severely disrupt aquatic ecosystems. Inducible defenses are adaptive traits developed by prey in response to predation risks. However, the effects of the increasing proportion of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins produced during cyanobacterial blooms on the inducible defenses of cladocerans, particularly in terms of behavioral defenses, remain unclear. In this study, we selected Daphnia magna and investigated the defensive traits against predation risks by the predator Rhodeus ocellatus under different ratios of cyanobacteria (Dolichospermum flos-aquae) and green algae (Scenedesmus obliquus), as well as varying concentrations of anatoxin-a (ATX), a cyanotoxin. We recorded the inducible defensive traits involving to morphology, behavior, and offspring production of D. magna. Results showed that the body length of D. magna at sexual maturity and the number of offspring in the first brood were significantly reduced by the presence of D. flos-aquae. Moreover, when the proportion of D. flos-aquae reached 75% and 100%, D. magna did not develop to sexual maturity. Furthermore, D. flos-aquae inhibited the formation of inducible behavioral defense of D. magna, with a stronger inhibitory effect as the proportion of D. flos-aquae increased. In this experiment, the effects of ATX on the morphological traits at sexual maturity and offspring production of D. magna were minor, but ATX still had the potential to inhibit the formation of inducible behavioral defense. We confirmed that changes in the proportion of cyanobacteria and green algae as well as the production of ATX by cyanobacteria during cyanobacterial blooms can affect the growth, development, and inducible defensive traits of cladocerans, potentially altering their population dynamics during such events.

Light-powered biodegradation of Imidacloprid by Scenedesmus sp. TXH202001: Assessing complete removal, metabolic pathways, and toxicity verification.

Imidacloprid (IMI) is used extensively as an insecticide and poses a significant risk to both the ecological environment and human health. Biological methods are currently gaining recognition among the different strategies tested for wastewater treatment. This study focused on evaluating a recently discovered green alga, Scenedesmus sp. TXH202001, isolated from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), exhibited notable capacity for IMI removal. After an 18-day evaluation, medium IMI concentrations (50 and 100 mg/L) facilitated the growth of microalgae whereas low (5 and 20 mg/L) and high (150 mg/L) concentrations had no discernible impact. No statistically significant disparities were detected in Fv/Fm, Malonaldehyde or Superoxide dismutase across all concentrations, suggesting Scenedesmus sp. TXH202001 exhibited notable resilience and adaptability to IMI conditions. Most notably, Scenedesmus sp. TXH202001 successfully eliminated > 99 % of IMI within 18 days subjected to IMI concentrations as high as 150 mg/L, which was contingent on the environmental factor of illumination. Molecular docking was used to identify the chemical reaction sites between IMI and typical degrading enzyme CYP450. Furthermore, the study revealed that the primary path for IMI removal was biodegradation and verified that the toxicity of the degraded product was lower than parent IMI in Caenorhabditis elegans. The efficacy of Scenedesmus sp. TXH202001 in wastewater was exceptional, thereby validating its practical utility.

Biosynthesized BiFe2O4@Ag nanoparticles mediated Scenedesmus obliquus induce apoptosis in AGS gastric cancer cell line.

The use of magnetic metal nanoparticles has been considered in cancer treatment studies. In this study, BiFe2O4@Ag nanoparticles were synthesized biologically by Scenedesmus obliquus for the first time and their anticancer mechanism in a gastric cancer cell line was characterized. The physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles were evaluated by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), and zeta potential analyses. Cell viability and nuclear damage were investigated by the MTT and Hoechst staining assays, respectively. Flow cytometry analysis was performed to determine the frequency of the necrotic and apoptotic cells as well as cell cycle analysis of the nanoparticles-treated cells. Physicochemical characterization showed that the synthesized particles were spherical, without impurities, in a size range of 38-83 nm, with DLS size and zeta potential of 295.7 nm and -27.7 mV, respectively. BiFe2O4@Ag nanoparticles were considerably more toxic for the gastric cancer cells (AGS cell line) than HEK293 normal cells with IC50 of 67 and 117 µg/ml, respectively. Treatment of AGS cells with the nanoparticles led to a remarkable increase in the percentage of late apoptosis (38.5 folds) and cell necrosis (13.4 folds) and caused cell cycle arrest, mainly at the S phase. Also, nuclear fragmentation and apoptotic bodies were observed in the gastric cancer cells treated with the nanoparticles. This study represents BiFe2O4@Ag as a novel anticancer candidate against gastric cancer that can induce cell apoptosis through DNA damage and inhibition of cell cycle progression.

Enhanced biomethane production from Scenedesmus sp. using polymer harvesting and expired COVID-19 disinfectant for pretreatment.

This study evaluates the repurposing of expired isopropanol (IPA) COVID-19 disinfectant (64% w/w) to pretreat algal biomass for enhancing methane (CH4) yield. The impact of harvesting methods (centrifugation and polymer flocculation) and microwave pretreatment on CH4 production from Scenedesmus sp. microalgal biomass were also investigated. Results show minimal impact of harvesting methods on the CH4 yield, with wet centrifuged and polymer-harvested biomass exhibiting comparable and low CH4 production at 66 and 74 L/kgvolatile solid, respectively. However, microalgae drying significantly increased CH4 yield compared to wet biomass, attributed to cell shrinkage and enhanced digestibility. Consequently, microwave and IPA pretreatment significantly enhanced CH4 production when applied to dried microalgae, yielding a 135% and 212% increase, respectively, compared to non-pretreated wet biomass. These findings underscore the advantage of using dried Scenedesmus sp. over wet biomass and highlight the synergistic effect of combining oven drying with IPA treatment to boost CH4 production whilst reducing COVID-19 waste.

Using single-species and algal communities to determine long-term adverse effects of silver nanoparticles on freshwater phytoplankton.

The physical and chemical properties of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have led to their increasing use in various fields such as medicine, food, and industry. Evidence has proven that AgNPs cause adverse effects in aquatic ecosystems, especially when the release of Ag is prolonged in time. Several studies have shown short-term adverse effects of AgNPs on freshwater phytoplankton, but few studies have analysed the impact of long-term exposures on these populations. Our studies were carried out to assess the effects of AgNPs on growth rate, photosynthesis activity, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation on the freshwater green algae Scenedesmus armatus and the cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa, and additionally on microcystin (MC-LR) generation from these cyanobacteria. The tests were conducted both in single-species cultures and in phytoplanktonic communities exposed to 1 ngL-1 AgNPs for 28 days. The results showed that cell growth rate of both single-species cultures decreased significantly at the beginning and progressively reached control-like values at 28 days post-exposure. This effect was similar for the community-cultured cyanobacteria, but not for the green algae, which maintained a sustained decrease in growth rate. While gross photosynthesis (Pg) increased in both strains exposed in single cultures, dark respiration (R) and net photosynthesis (Pn) decreased in S. armatus and M. aeruginosa, respectively. These effects were mitigated when both strains were exposed under community culture conditions. Similarly, the ROS generation shown by both strains exposed in single-species cultures was mitigated when exposure occurred in community cultures. MC-LR production and release were significantly decreased in both single-species and community exposures. These results can supply helpful information to further investigate the potential risks of AgNPs and ultimately help policymakers make better-informed decisions about their utilization for environmental restoration.

Enhancing bioremediation potential of microalgae Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus acutus by NaCl for pyrene degradation.

Microalgae are increasingly recognized as promising organisms for bioremediation of organic pollutants. This study investigates the potential of enhancing the bioremediation efficiency of pyrene (PYR), a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), through NaCl induced physiological and biochemical alterations in two microalgae species, Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus acutus. Our findings reveal significant improvement in PYR removal when these microalgae were cultivated in the presence of 0.1% NaCl where PYR removal increased from 54 to 74% for C. vulgaris and from 26 to 75% for S. acutus. However, it was observed that NaCl induced stress had varying effects on the two species. While C. vulgaris exhibited increased PYR removal, it experienced reduced growth and biomass production, as well as lower photosynthetic efficiency when exposed to PYR and PYR + NaCl. In contrast, S. acutus displayed better growth and biomass accumulation under PYR + NaCl conditions, making it a more efficient candidate for enhancing PYR bioremediation in the presence of NaCl. In addition to assessing growth and biochemical content, we also investigated stress biomarkers, such as lipid peroxidation, polyphenol and proline contents. These findings suggest that S. acutus holds promise as an alternative microalgae species for PYR removal in the presence of NaCl, offering potential advantages in terms of bioremediation efficiency and ecological sustainability. This study highlights the importance of understanding the physiological and biochemical responses of microalgae to environmental stressors, which can be harnessed to optimize bioremediation strategies for the removal of organic pollutants like PYR.

The role of algal EPS in reducing the combined toxicity of BPA and polystyrene nanoparticles to the freshwater algae Scenedesmus obliquus.

Both Bisphenol A (BPA) and polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs) are routinely found in several consumer products such as packaging materials, flame retardants, and cosmetics. The environment is seriously endangered by nano- and microplastics. In addition to harming aquatic life, nanoplastics (NPs) also bind to other pollutants, facilitating their dispersion in the environment and possibly promoting toxicity induced by these pollutants. The toxic effects of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) and BPA were examined in this study, as well as the combined toxic impacts of these substances on the freshwater microalgae Scenedesmus obliquus. In addition, the exopolymeric substances (EPS) secreted by algae will interact with the pollutants modifying their physicochemical behaviour and fate. This work aimed to investigate how algal EPS alters the combined effects of BPA and PSNPs on the microalgae Scenedesmus obliquus. The algae were exposed to binary mixtures of BPA (2.5, 5, and 10 mg/L) and PSNPs (1 mg/L of plain, aminated, and carboxylated PSNPs) with EPS added to the natural freshwater medium. Cell viability, hydroxyl and superoxide radical generation, cell membrane permeability, antioxidant enzyme activity (catalase and superoxide dismutase), and photosynthetic pigment content were among the parameters studied to determine the toxicity. It was observed that for all the binary mixtures, the carboxylated PSNPs were most toxic when compared to the toxicity induced by the other PSNP particles investigated. The maximum damage was observed for the mixture of 10 mg/L of BPA with carboxylated PSNPs with a cell viability of 49%. When compared to the pristine mixtures, the EPS-containing mixtures induced significantly reduced toxic effects. A considerable decrease in reactive oxygen species levels, activity of antioxidant enzymes (SOD and CAT), and cell membrane damage was noted in the EPS-containing mixtures. Reduced concentrations of the reactive oxygen species led to improved photosynthetic pigment content in the cells.

Effects of leachates from UV-weathered microplastic on the microalgae Scenedesmus vacuolatus.

Plastics undergo successive fragmentation and chemical leaching steps in the environment due to weathering processes such as photo-oxidation. Here, we report the effects of leachates from UV-irradiated microplastics towards the chlorophyte Scenedesmus vacuolatus. The microplastics tested were derived from an additive-containing electronic waste (EW) and a computer keyboard (KB) as well as commercial virgin polymers with low additive content, including polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS). Whereas leachates from additive-containing EW and KB induced severe effects, the leachates from virgin PET, PP, and PS did not show substantial adverse effects in our autotrophic test system. Leachates from PE reduced algae biomass, cell growth, and photosynthetic activity. Experimental data were consistent with predicted effect concentrations based on the ionization-corrected liposome/water distribution ratios (Dlip/w) of polymer degradation products of PE (mono- and dicarboxylic acids), indicating that leachates from weathering PE were mainly baseline toxic. This study provides insight into algae toxicity elicited by leachates from UV-weathered microplastics of different origin, complementing the current particle- vs. chemical-focused research towards the toxicity of plastics and their leachates.

Ecotoxicological effects of DBPs on freshwater phytoplankton communities in co-culture systems.

Intensive disinfection of wastewater during the COVID-19 pandemic might elevate the generation of toxic disinfection byproducts (DBPs), which has triggered global concerns about their ecological risks to natural aquatic ecosystems. In this study, the toxicity of 17 DBPs typically present in wastewater effluents on three representative microalgae, including Scenedesmus sp. (Chlorophyta), Microcystis aeruginosa (Cyanophyta), and Cyclotella sp. (Bacillariophyta) was investigated. The sensitivities of the three microalgae to DBPs varied greatly from species to species, indicating that DBPs may change the structure of phytoplankton communities. Later, co-cultures of these phytoplankton groups as a proxy of ecological freshwater scenario were conducted to explore the impacts of DBPs on phytoplankton community succession. M. aeruginosa became surprisingly dominant in co-cultures, representing over 50% after dosing with monochloroacetic acid (MCAA, 0.1-10 mg/L). The highest proportion of M. aeruginosa was 70.3% when exposed to 2 mg/L MCAA. Although Scenedesmus sp. dominated in monochloroacetonitrile (MCAN) exposure, M. aeruginosa accounted for no less than 30% even at 40 mg/L MCAN. In this study, DBPs disrupted the original inter-algal relationship in favor of M. aeruginosa, suggesting that DBPs may contribute to the outbreak of cyanobacterial blooms in aquatic ecosystems.

Acute effects of CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite on Scenedesmus obliquus and Daphnia magana in aquatic environment.

CH3NH3PbI3 is one of the most widely studied and most promising photoelectric conversion materials for large-scale application. However, once it is discharged into the aquatic environment, it will release a variety of lethal substances to the aquatic organisms. Herein, two typical aquatic pollution indicators, Scenedesmus obliquus (a typical phytoplankton) and Daphnia magna (a typical zooplankton), were used to assess the acute effects of CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite on aquatic organisms. The results showed that, when the initial CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite level (CPL) was 40 mg L-1 or higher, the growth of S. obliquus would be remarkably inhibited with significant decreases of chlorophyll content and protein content. And when the CPL was over 5 mg L-1, the survival of D. magna would be notably threatened. Specifically, the 72 h EC-50 of CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite to S. obliquus was calculated as 37.21 mg L-1, and the 24 h LC-50 of this perovskite to D. magna adults and neonates were calculated as 37.53 mg L-1 and 18.55 mg L-1, respectively. Moreover, remarkably solution pH declination and large amounts of lead bio-accumulation was observed in the both acute experiments, which could be the main reasons causing the above acute effects. Considering the strong acute effects of these CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite materials and their attractive application prospect, more attentions should be paid on their harmness to the environment.

Bacillus spp. metabolites are effective in eradicating Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae with low toxicity to non-target species.

The growing spread of dengue, chikungunya and Zika viruses demand the development of new and environmentally safe control methods for their vector, the mosquito Aedes aegypti. This study aims to find novel larvicidal agents from mutualistic (endophytic and rhizospheric) or edaphic bacteria that have no action against non-target organisms. Eleven out of the 254 bacterial strains tested were able to kill Ae. aegypti larvae. Larvicidal activity did not depend on presence of cells, since culture supernatants or crude lipopeptide extracts (CLEs) killed the larvae. Bacillus safensis BacI67 and Bacillus paranthracis C21 supernatants were the best performing supernatants, displaying the lowest lethal concentrations (LC50 = 31.11 µL/mL and 45.84 µL/mL, respectively). Bacillus velezensis B64a and Bacillus velezensis B15 produced the best performing CLEs (LC50 = 0.11 mg/mL and 0.12 mg/mL, respectively). Mass spectrometry analysis of CLEs detected a mixture of surfactins, iturins, and fengycins. The samples tested were weakly- or non-toxic to mammalian cells (RAW 264.7 macrophages and VERO cells) and non-target organisms (Caenorhabditis elegans, Galleria mellonella, Scenedesmus obliquus, and Tetrahymena pyriformis) - especially B. velezensis B15 CLE. The biosynthetic gene clusters related to secondary metabolism identified by whole genome sequencing of the four best performing bacteria strains revealed clusters for bacteriocin, beta-lactone, lanthipeptide, non-ribosomal peptide synthetases, polyketide synthases (PKS), siderophores, T3PKS, type 1 PKS-like, terpenes, thiopeptides, and trans-AT-PKS. Purification of lipopeptides may clarify the mechanisms by which these extracts kill Ae. aegypti larvae.

Chemical- and species-specific toxicity of nonylphenol and octylphenol to microalgae Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Scenedesmus obliquus.

As typical endocrine disrupters, nonylphenol (NP) and octylphenol (OP) are emerging pollutants that have attracted wide attention. This study investigated the toxicity effects of NP and OP on microalgae Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Scenedesmus obliquus, particularly on their growth inhibition, photosynthetic pigment, chlorophyll fluorescence, and superoxide dismutase and malondialdehyde levels. Results showed that the 96 h EC50 of NP and OP was 2.89 and 5.21 mg/L on C. pyrenoidosa, respectively, and 1.54 and 8.48 mg/L on S. obliquus, respectively. NP exerted a stronger inhibitory effect on cell growth, photosynthesis, and PSII activity, and it contributed more oxidative stress on C. pyrenoidosa than on S. obliquus. By contrast, OP exerted a stronger inhibitory effect on S. obliquus than on C. pyrenoidosa. Furthermore, the toxicity of OP to the tested microalgae was lower than that of NP. Principal component analysis (PCA) and Pearson's correlation indicate that the accumulation of reactive oxygen species is the dominant mechanism of NP and OP cellular toxicity. The principal components of NP and OP affecting microalgae are distinct in the PCA plot, and different endocrine disrupters have varying chemical-specific influences on algal cells. This study confirmed that the toxicity of NP and OP to microalgae C. pyrenoidosa and S. obliquus is chemical- and species-specific. These findings should be considered when assessing the health risk of environmental pollution.

The effects of exogenous cerium on photosystem II as probed by in vivo chlorophyll fluorescence and lipid production of Scenedesmus obliquus XJ002.

Cerium is the most abundant rare earth metal in the earth's crust, and it has deleterious effects on aquatic ecosystems from fertilizer runoff. Scenedesmus obliquus is an oil-rich microalga that grows rapidly and is sensitive to many kinds of toxins. Given that microalgae are useful indicators of eutrophication and toxic stress, it was found that lower concentrations of cerium (0.50-5.00 mg·L-1 ) stimulated algal growth and increased chlorophyll a content, whereas higher concentrations (above 50.00 mg·L-1 ) had an inhibitory effect on algal growth and chlorophyll a content. The algal growth rate and chlorophyll a content peaked at a cerium concentration of 5.00 mg·L-1 . Both the donor and acceptor sides of photosystem II (PSII) reaction centers were sensitive to cerium-induced stress. Specifically, high concentrations of cerium damaged the oxygen evolving complex and PSII reaction center and suppressed electron transport at the donor and receptor side of the reaction center, influencing the absorption, transfer, and application of light energy in S. obliquus XJ002. In addition, we established a simple method to quantify the intracellular lipid content of S. obliquus XJ002, and the optimum staining conditions for Nile red were as follows: volume percentage of dimethyl sulfoxide was 2%, the concentration of Nile red was 2.0 µg·mL-1 , and the staining time of Nile red was 5 min. The addition of cerium resulted in a significant increase in the total lipid content of XJ002. When the concentration of cerium was 50 mg·L-1 , the total lipid content was 16.26% higher than the control group. This information will enhance our ability to utilize microelement fertilizer in biomass accumulation programs and will help to further reveal the key regulatory factors in the lipid metabolism, and would lay the foundation for promoting the research of microalgae bioenergy.

Effects and possible mechanisms of sanguinarine on the competition between Raphidiopsis raciborskii (Cyanophyta) and Scenedesmus obliquus (Chlorophyta): A comparative toxicological study.

The phytogenic algicide sanguinarine shows strong inhibitory effects on some bloom-forming cyanobacteria and exhibits great potential in cyanobacterial bloom mitigation. To evaluate the possible ecological effects of sanguinarine on microalgae, the effects and possible mechanisms of sanguinarine on the competition between bloom-forming cyanobacterium Raphidiopsis raciborskii (formerly named Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii) and green alga Scenedesmus obliquus were investigated through co-culture competition test and comparative toxicological study including growth characteristics, chlorophyll fluorescence transients, activities of antioxidant enzymes, and lipid peroxidation. The results of Raphidiopsis-Scenedesmus co-culture competition test showed that sanguinarine decreased the competition ability of R. raciborskii, which benefitted S. obliquus in winning the competition. Toxicological studies have shown that sanguinarine exhibited high inhibitory effects on the growth and photosynthesis of R. raciborskii but no obvious toxicity on S. obliquus at concentrations of no more than 80 µg L-1. Oxidative damage partially contributed but was not the primary mechanism for the toxicity of sanguinarine on R. raciborskii. The results presented in this study indicate that sanguinarine may be a good algicidal candidate in mitigation of Raphidiopsis-based water bloom.

Anti-Biofouling and Self-Cleaning Surfaces Featured with Magnetic Artificial Cilia.

The fouling of surfaces submerged in a liquid is a serious problem for many applications including lab-on-a-chip devices and marine sensors. Inspired by the versatility of cilia in manipulating fluids and particles, it is experimentally demonstrated that surfaces partially covered with magnetic artificial cilia (MAC) have the capacity to efficiently prevent attachment and adhesion of real biofouling agents-microalgae Scenedesmus sp. Actuation of the MAC resulted in over 99% removal of the algae for two different scenarios: (1) actuating the MAC immediately after injecting the algae into a microfluidic chip, demonstrating antifouling and (2) starting to actuate the MAC 1 week after injecting the algae into the chip and leaving them to grow in static conditions, showing self-cleaning. It is shown that the local and global flows generated by the actuated MAC are substantial, resulting in hydrodynamic shear forces acting on the algae, which are likely to be key to efficient antifouling and self-cleaning. These findings and insights will potentially lead to novel types of self-cleaning and antifouling strategies, which may have a relevant practical impact on different fields and applications including lab-on-a-chip devices and water quality analyzers.