Conserved and specific gene expression patterns in the embryonic development of tardigrades.

Tardigrades, commonly known as water bears, are enigmatic organisms characterized by their remarkable resilience to extreme environments despite their simple and compact body structure. To date, there is still much to understand about their evolutionary and developmental features contributing to their special body plan and abilities. This research provides preliminary insights on the conserved and specific gene expression patterns during embryonic development of water bears, focusing on the species Hypsibius exemplaris. The developmental dynamic expression analysis of the genes with various evolutionary age grades indicated that the mid-conserved stage of H. exemplaris corresponds to the period of ganglia and midgut development, with the late embryonic stage showing a transition from non-conserved to conserved state. Additionally, a comparison with Drosophila melanogaster highlighted the absence of certain pathway nodes in development-related pathways, such as Maml and Hairless, which are respectively the transcriptional co-activator and co-repressor of NOTCH regulated genes. We also employed Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) to investigate the expression patterns of tardigrade-specific genes during embryo development. Our findings indicated that the module containing the highest proportion of tardigrade-specific genes (TSGs) exhibits high expression levels before the mid-conserved stage, potentially playing a role in glutathione and lipid metabolism. These functions may be associated to the ecdysone synthesis and storage cell formation, which is unique to tardigrades.

The Emergence of the Tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris as a Model System.

The success of scientists in revealing biological mechanisms has depended in large part on choosing tractable model systems. In 1997, molecular phylogenetics revealed that two of biology's most tractable models-Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila-are much more closely related to each other than had been thought previously. I began to explore whether any of the little-studied members of this branch of the tree of life might serve as a new model for comparative biology that could make use of the rich and ongoing sources of information flowing from C. elegans and Drosophila research. Tardigrades, also known as water bears, make up a phylum of microscopic animals. The tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris (recently disambiguated from a closely related species, Hypsibius dujardini) can be maintained in laboratories and has a generation time of <2 wk at room temperature. Stocks of animals can be stored frozen and revived. The animals and their embryos are optically clear, and embryos are laid in groups, with each synchronous clutch of embryos laid in a clear molt. We have developed techniques for laboratory study of this system, including methods for microinjection of animals, immunolocalization, in situ hybridization, RNA interference, transcriptomics, and methods for identifying proteins that mediate tolerance to extreme environments. Here, I review the development of this animal as an emerging model system, as well as recent molecular studies aimed at understanding the evolution of developmental mechanisms that underpin the evolution of animal form and at understanding how biological materials can survive extreme environments.

Live Imaging of Tardigrade Embryonic Development by Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy.

The tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris was chosen as a model system in part because embryos and animals are optically clear at all stages, facilitating the viewing and filming of internal processes. Multiplane video recordings under differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy have allowed early embryonic cell lineages to be reconstructed through seven rounds of division and have revealed invariant patterns of asymmetric cell divisions, nuclear migrations, and cell migrations. Here, we present a protocol for filming embryonic development of H. exemplaris by DIC microscopy.

Embryonic Immunostaining for the Tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris.

Immunostaining is a method used to visualize the localization of proteins in fixed tissue. Many antibodies are available that recognize specific proteins in a wide diversity of organisms, which makes this method ideal for investigating gene expression patterns in nonmodel animal systems. This protocol describes immunostaining for studies of embryogenesis in the tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris.

Embryonic In Situ Hybridization for the Tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris.

In situ hybridization is a method for visualizing embryonic gene expression that is amenable to nonmodel systems. Here, an in situ hybridization protocol is presented for the tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris This method allows gene expression to be visualized directly and with fluorescence microscopy.

Fluorescent Cell Staining Methods for Living Hypsibius exemplaris Embryos.

The tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris was chosen as a model system in part because animals and embryos are optically clear at all stages, facilitating the visualization of events in living material. Here we report new methods for introducing fluorescent dyes into developing H. exemplaris embryos, including methods for fluorescently marking mitochondria, lysosomes, membranes, and nuclei. The development of these techniques suggests approaches for attempting to introduce other molecules into embryos.

A Hypothesis for the Composition of the Tardigrade Brain and its Implications for Panarthropod Brain Evolution.

Incredibly disparate brain types are found in Metazoa, which raises the question of how this disparity evolved. Ecdysozoa includes representatives that exhibit ring-like brains-the Cycloneuralia-and representatives that exhibit ganglionic brains-the Panarthropoda (Euarthropoda, Onychophora, and Tardigrada). The evolutionary steps leading to these distinct brain types are unclear. Phylogenomic analyses suggest that the enigmatic Tardigrada is a closely related outgroup of a Euarthropoda + Onychophora clade; as such, the brains of tardigrades may provide insight into the evolution of ecdysozoan brains. Recently, evolutionarily salient questions have arisen regarding the composition of the tardigrade brain. To address these questions, we investigated brain anatomy in four tardigrade species-Hypsibius dujardini, Milnesium n. sp., Echiniscus n. sp., and Batillipes n. sp.-that together span Tardigrada. Our results suggest that general brain morphology is conserved across Tardigrada. Based on our results we present a hypothesis that proposes direct parallels between the tardigrade brain and the segmental trunk ganglia of the tardigrade ventral nervous system. In this hypothesis, brain neuropil nearly circumscribes the tardigrade foregut. We suggest that the tardigrade brain retains aspects of an ancestral cycloneuralian brain, while exhibiting ganglionic structure characteristic of euarthropods and onychophorans.

External morphogenesis of the tardigrade Hypsibius dujardini as revealed by scanning electron microscopy.

Tardigrada, commonly called water bears, is a taxon of microscopic panarthropods with five-segmented bodies and four pairs of walking legs. Although tardigrades have been known to science for several centuries, questions remain regarding many aspects of their biology, such as embryogenesis. Herein, we used scanning electron microscopy to document the external changes that occur during embryonic development in the tardigrade Hypsibius dujardini (Eutardigrada, Parachela, Hypsibiidae). Our results show an accelerated development of external features, with approximately 30 hrs separating the point at which external structures first become recognizable and a fully formed embryo. All segments appear to arise simultaneously between ∼20 and 25 hrs of development, and no differences in the degree of development could be detected between the limb buds at any stage. Claws emerge shortly after the limb buds and are morphologically similar to those of adults. The origin of the claws is concurrent with that of the sclerotized parts of the mouth, suggesting that all cuticular structures arise simultaneously at ∼30 hrs. The mouth arises as an invagination in the terminal region of the head at ∼25 hrs, closes later in development, and opens again shortly before hatching. The anlagen of the peribuccal lobes arise as one dorsal and one ventral row, each consisting of three lobes, and later form a ring in the late embryo, whereas there is no indication of a labrum anlage at any point during development. Furthermore, we describe limited postembryonic development in the form of cuticular pores that are absent in juveniles but present in adults. This study represents the first scanning electron micrographs of tardigrade embryos, demonstrating the utility of this technique for studying embryogenesis in tardigrades. This work further adds an external morphological perspective to the developmental data already available for H. dujardini, facilitating future comparisons to related panarthropod taxa. J. Morphol. 278:563-573, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Effects of ionizing radiation on embryos of the tardigrade Milnesium cf. tardigradum at different stages of development.

Tardigrades represent one of the most desiccation and radiation tolerant animals on Earth, and several studies have documented their tolerance in the adult stage. Studies on tolerance during embryological stages are rare, but differential effects of desiccation and freezing on different developmental stages have been reported, as well as dose-dependent effect of gamma irradiation on tardigrade embryos. Here, we report a study evaluating the tolerance of eggs from the eutardigrade Milnesium cf. tardigradum to three doses of gamma radiation (50, 200 and 500 Gy) at the early, middle, and late stage of development. We found that embryos of the middle and late developmental stages were tolerant to all doses, while eggs in the early developmental stage were tolerant only to a dose of 50 Gy, and showed a declining survival with higher dose. We also observed a delay in development of irradiated eggs, suggesting that periods of DNA repair might have taken place after irradiation induced damage. The delay was independent of dose for eggs irradiated in the middle and late stage, possibly indicating a fixed developmental schedule for repair after induced damage. These results show that the tolerance to radiation in tardigrade eggs changes in the course of their development. The mechanisms behind this pattern are unknown, but may relate to changes in mitotic activities over the embryogenesis and/or to activation of response mechanisms to damaged DNA in the course of development.

Comparative proteome analysis of Milnesium tardigradum in early embryonic state versus adults in active and anhydrobiotic state.

Tardigrades have fascinated researchers for more than 300 years because of their extraordinary capability to undergo cryptobiosis and survive extreme environmental conditions. However, the survival mechanisms of tardigrades are still poorly understood mainly due to the absence of detailed knowledge about the proteome and genome of these organisms. Our study was intended to provide a basis for the functional characterization of expressed proteins in different states of tardigrades. High-throughput, high-accuracy proteomics in combination with a newly developed tardigrade specific protein database resulted in the identification of more than 3000 proteins in three different states: early embryonic state and adult animals in active and anhydrobiotic state. This comprehensive proteome resource includes protein families such as chaperones, antioxidants, ribosomal proteins, cytoskeletal proteins, transporters, protein channels, nutrient reservoirs, and developmental proteins. A comparative analysis of protein families in the different states was performed by calculating the exponentially modified protein abundance index which classifies proteins in major and minor components. This is the first step to analyzing the proteins involved in early embryonic development, and furthermore proteins which might play an important role in the transition into the anhydrobiotic state.