Extracellular vesicles in the pathogenesis of neurotropic viruses.

Neurotropic viruses, characterized by their capacity to invade the central nervous system, present a considerable challenge to public health and are responsible for a diverse range of neurological disorders. This group includes a diverse array of viruses, such as herpes simplex virus, varicella zoster virus, poliovirus, enterovirus and Japanese encephalitis virus, among others. Some of these viruses exhibit high neuroinvasiveness and neurovirulence, while others demonstrate weaker neuroinvasive and neurovirulent properties. The clinical manifestations of infections caused by neurotropic viruses can vary significantly, ranging from mild symptoms to severe life-threatening conditions. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have garnered considerable attention due to their pivotal role in intracellular communication, which modulates the biological activity of target cells via the transport of biomolecules in both health and disease. Investigating EVs in the context of virus infection is crucial for elucidating their potential role contribution to viral pathogenesis. This is because EVs derived from virus-infected cells frequently transfer viral components to uninfected cells. Importantly, EVs released by virus-infected cells have the capacity to traverse the blood-brain barrier (BBB), thereby impacting neuronal activity and inducing neuroinflammation. In this review, we explore the roles of EVs during neurotropic virus infections in either enhancing or inhibiting viral pathogenesis. We will delve into our current comprehension of the molecular mechanisms that underpin these roles, the potential implications for the infected host, and the prospective diagnostic applications that could arise from this understanding.

Role of inflammatory cytokine burst in neuro-invasion of Japanese Encephalitis virus infection: an immunotherapeutic approaches.

Japanese Encephalitis remains a significant global health concern, contributing to millions of deaths annually worldwide. Microglial cells, as key innate immune cells within the central nervous system (CNS), exhibit intricate cellular structures and possess molecular phenotypic plasticity, playing pivotal roles in immune responses during CNS viral infections. Particularly under viral inflammatory conditions, microglial cells orchestrate innate and adaptive immune responses to mitigate viral invasion and dampen inflammatory reactions. This review article comprehensively summarizes the pathophysiology of viral invasion into the CNS and the cellular interactions involved, elucidating the roles of various immune mediators, including pro-inflammatory cytokines, in neuroinflammation. Leveraging this knowledge, strategies for modulating inflammatory responses and attenuating hyperactivation of glial cells to mitigate viral replication within the brain are discussed. Furthermore, current chemotherapeutic and antiviral drugs are examined, elucidating their mechanisms of action against viral replication. This review aims to provide insights into therapeutic interventions for Japanese Encephalitis and related viral infections, ultimately contributing to improved outcomes for affected individuals.

An RBM10 and NF-κB interacting host lncRNA promotes JEV replication and neuronal cell death.

IMPORTANCE: Central nervous system infection by flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis virus, Dengue virus, and West Nile virus results in neuroinflammation and neuronal damage. However, little is known about the role of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in flavivirus-induced neuroinflammation and neuronal cell death. Here, we characterized the role of a flavivirus-induced lncRNA named JINR1 during the infection of neuronal cells. Depletion of JINR1 during virus infection reduces viral replication and cell death. An increase in GRP78 expression by JINR1 is responsible for promoting virus replication. Flavivirus infection induces the expression of a cellular protein RBM10, which interacts with JINR1. RBM10 and JINR1 promote the proinflammatory transcription factor NF-κB activity, which is detrimental to cell survival.

Sequence duplication in 3' UTR modulates virus replication and virulence of Japanese encephalitis virus.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), an important neurotropic pathogen, belongs to the genus Flavivirus of the family Flaviviridae and has caused huge threat to public health. It is still obscure regarding the functions of stem-loop (SL) and dumbbell (DB) domains of JEV 3' UTR in viral replication and virulence. In the current study, using the infectious clone of JEV SA14 strain as a backbone, we constructed a series of deletion mutants of 3' UTR to investigate their effects on virus replication. The results showed that partial deletions within SL or DB domain had no apparent effects on virus replication in both mammalian (BHK-21) and mosquito (C6/36) cells, suggesting that they were not involved in viral host-specific replication. However, the entire SL domain deletion (ΔVR) significantly reduced virus replication in both cell lines, indicating the important role of the complete SL domain in virus replication. The revertant of ΔVR mutant virus was obtained by serial passage in BHK-21 cells that acquired a duplication of DB domain (DB-dup) in the 3' UTR, which greatly restored virus replication as well as the capability to produce the subgenomic flavivirus RNAs (sfRNAs). Interestingly, the DB-dup mutant virus was highly attenuated in C57BL/6 mice despite replicating similar to WT JEV. These findings demonstrate the significant roles of the duplicated structures in 3' UTR in JEV replication and provide a novel strategy for the design of live-attenuated vaccines.

Association of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the CD209, MMP9, TNFA and IFNG genes with susceptibility to Japanese encephalitis in children from North India.

Japanese encephalitis (JE), an acute encephalitis syndrome disease caused by infection with JE virus (JEV), is an important mosquito borne disease in developing countries. The clinical outcomes of JEV infection show inter individual differences. Only in a minor percent of the infected subjects, the disease progresses into acute encephalitis syndrome. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the host immune response related genes are known to affect susceptibility to JE. In the present study, 238 JE cases and 405 healthy controls (HCs) without any known history of encephalitis were investigated for SNPs in the CD209 MX1, TLR3, MMP9, TNFA and IFNG genes which are important in the immune response against JEV by PCR based methods. The results revealed higher frequencies of heterozygous genotypes of CD209 rs4804803, MMP9 rs17576, TNFA rs1800629 and IFNG rs2430561 in JE cases compared to HCs. These SNPs were associated with JE in an over-dominant genetic model (Odds ratio with 95% CI 1.51 (1.09-2.10) for CD209 rs4804803, 1.52 (1.09-2.11) for MMP9 rs17576, and 1.55 (1.12-2.15) for IFNG rs2430561). The association of G/A genotype of TNFA rs1800629 with JE was confirmed in a larger sample size. The results suggest the association of CD209 rs4804803, MMP9 rs17576, IFNG rs2430561 and TNFA rs1800629 polymorphisms with susceptibility to JE.

Pro-inflammatory and anti-inflamatory cytokine genes polymorphisms and susceptibility to Japanese encephalitis disease in the North Indian population.

BACKGROUND: Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the major cause of viral encephalitis in many regions of Asia. Cytokines, including pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory are key regulators playing a detrimental role in the host response to JE infection, pathogenesis and disease outcome. Evidently, the host's cytokine response is genetically determined, representing the complexity of interindividual differences regarding immune response to viral infection. The current study assesses the association of single nucleotide polymorphisms of classical interleukin IL-1ß and IL-10 with JEV susceptibility and disease severity in north Indian population. METHODS: We performed a case-control study using 85 JE patients and 85 healthy controls. Polymorphisms in the IL-1ß (-511 C/T) and IL-10 (-1082 A/G) genes were genotyped using PCR-RFLP. All continuous variables were expressed as mean ± standard deviation, and categorical variables were expressed in percentage. RESULTS: The mRNA level of IL-1ß and IL-10 were found significantly increased in JE patients. In severe JE patients, IL-1ß mRNA level was significantly higher with heterozygous (C/T) and homozygous (C/C) genotype compared to wild (T/T) genotype and mRNA level of IL-10 was higher in heterozygous genotype (A/G) compared to wild genotype (A/A). The C/T and C/C genotypes of IL-1ß were significantly associated with higher risk of JE infection (p < 0.05, OR = 7.25 and 4.40) whereas, the A/G genotype of IL-10 was associated with a reduced risk of JEV infection (p < 0.05, OR = 0.30). The C allele of IL-1ß was associated with fever and neck stiffness (p < 0.05) and CT genotype was associated with disease severity and worse outcomes in JE patients. Along with this, IL-10 polymorphism was found associated with fever, and AG genotype was found to be associated with worse disease outcomes such as neurological sequelae (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Mutant allele and genotype at IL-1ß (-511 C/T) and IL-10 (-1082 A/G) gene polymorphism show increased expression of IL-1ß and IL-10 in JE patients which contribute to disease severity as well as adverse outcomes of disease. Overall this is the first report from northern India, which shows the association of IL-1ß and IL-10 polymorphisms with JEV infection.

Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cell-Derived HMGB1 Facilitates Monocyte Adhesion and Transmigration to Promote JEV Neuroinvasion.

Infection with Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) induces high morbidity and mortality, including potentially permanent neurological sequelae. However, the mechanisms by which viruses cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and invade into the central nervous system (CNS) remain unclear. Here, we show that extracellular HMGB1 facilitates immune cell transmigration. Furthermore, the migration of immune cells into the CNS dramatically increases during JEV infection which may enhance viral clearance, but paradoxically expedite the onset of Japanese encephalitis (JE). In this study, brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) were utilized for the detection of HMGB1 release, and leucocyte, adhesion, and the integrity of the BBB in vitro. Genetically modified JEV-expressing EGFP (EGFP-JEV) and the BBB model were established to trace JEV-infected immune cell transmigration, which mimics the process of viral neuroinfection. We find that JEV causes HMGB1 release from BMECs while increasing adhesion molecules. Recombinant HMGB1 enhances leukocyte-endothelium adhesion, facilitating JEV-infected monocyte transmigration across endothelia. Thus, JEV successfully utilizes infected monocytes to spread into the brain, expanding inside of the brain, and leading to the acceleration of JE onset, which was facilitated by HMGB1. HMGB1-promoted monocyte transmigration may represent the mechanism of JEV neuroinvasion, revealing potential therapeutic targets.

Detection of the Japanese encephalitis vector mosquito Culex tritaeniorhynchus in Australia using molecular diagnostics and morphology.

BACKGROUND: Culex (Culex) tritaeniorhynchus is an important vector of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) affecting feral pigs, native mammals and humans. The mosquito species is widely distributed throughout Southeast Asia, Africa and Europe, and thought to be absent in Australia. METHODS: In February and May, 2020 the Medical Entomology unit of the Northern Territory (NT) Top End Health Service collected Cx. tritaeniorhynchus female specimens (n = 19) from the Darwin and Katherine regions. Specimens were preliminarily identified morphologically as the Vishnui subgroup in subgenus Culex. Molecular identification was performed using cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) barcoding, including sequence percentage identity using BLAST and tree-based identification using maximum likelihood analysis in the IQ-TREE software package. Once identified using COI, specimens were reanalysed for diagnostic morphological characters to inform a new taxonomic key to related species from the NT. RESULTS: Sequence percentage analysis of COI revealed that specimens from the NT shared 99.7% nucleotide identity to a haplotype of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus from Dili, Timor-Leste. The phylogenetic analysis showed that the NT specimens formed a monophyletic clade with other Cx. tritaeniorhynchus from Southeast Asia and the Middle East. We provide COI barcodes for most NT species from the Vishnui subgroup to aid future identifications, including the first genetic sequences for Culex (Culex) crinicauda and the undescribed species Culex (Culex) sp. No. 32 of Marks. Useful diagnostic morphological characters were identified and are presented in a taxonomic key to adult females to separate Cx. tritaeniorhynchus from other members of the Vishnui subgroup from the NT. CONCLUSIONS: We report the detection of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus in Australia from the Darwin and Katherine regions of the NT. The vector is likely to be already established in northern Australia, given the wide geographical spread throughout the Top End of the NT. The establishment of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus in Australia is a concern to health officials as the species is an important vector of JEV and is now the sixth species from the subgenus Culex capable of vectoring JEV in Australia. We suggest that the species must now be continuously monitored during routine mosquito surveillance programmes to determine its current geographical spread and prevent the potential transmission of exotic JEV throughout Australia.

Development and characterization of an animal model of Japanese encephalitis virus infection in adolescent C57BL/6 mouse.

A mouse-adapted isolate of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), designated as JEV-S3, was generated by serially passaging the P20778 strain of the virus in 3- to 4-week-old C57BL/6 mice. Blood-brain barrier leakage was evident in JEV-S3-infected mice, in which viral antigens and RNA were consistently demonstrated in the brain, along with infiltration of activated immune cells, as evidenced by an increased CD45+CD11b+ cell population. Histopathology studies showed the presence of perivascular cuffing, haemorrhage and necrotic foci in the virus-infected brain, conforming to the pathological changes seen in the brain of JEV-infected patients. Mass spectrometry studies characterized the molecular events leading to brain inflammation in the infected mice. Notably, a significant induction of inflammatory cytokines, such as IFNγ, IL6, TNFα and TGFß, was observed. Further, genome sequencing of the JEV-S3 isolate identified the mutations selected during the mouse passage of the virus. Overall, we present an in-depth characterization of a robust and reproducible mouse model of JEV infection. The JEV-S3 isolate will be a useful tool to screen antivirals and study virus pathogenesis in the adolescent mouse model.

Characteristics of Chimeric West Nile Virus Based on the Japanese Encephalitis Virus SA14-14-2 Backbone.

West Nile virus disease (WND) is an arthropod-borne zoonosis responsible for nonspecific fever or severe encephalitis. The pathogen is West Nile virus belonging to the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae. Every year, thousands of cases were reported, which poses significant public health risk. Here, we constructed a West Nile virus chimera, ChiVax-WN01, by replacing the prMΔE gene of JEV SA14-14-2 with that of the West Nile virus NY99. The ChiVax-WN01 chimera showed clear, different characters compared with that of JEV SA14-14-2 and WNV NY99 strain. An animal study indicated that the ChiVax-WN01 chimera presented moderate safety and immunogenicity for 4-week female BALB/c mice.

Type I IFN signaling limits hemorrhage-like disease after infection with Japanese encephalitis virus through modulating a prerequisite infection of CD11b+Ly-6C+ monocytes.

BACKGROUND: The crucial role of type I interferon (IFN-I, IFN-α/ß) is well known to control central nervous system (CNS) neuroinflammation caused by neurotrophic flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) and West Nile virus. However, an in-depth analysis of IFN-I signal-dependent cellular factors that govern CNS-restricted tropism in JEV infection in vivo remains to be elucidated. METHODS: Viral dissemination, tissue tropism, and cytokine production were examined in IFN-I signal-competent and -incompetent mice after JEV inoculation in tissues distal from the CNS such as the footpad. Bone marrow (BM) chimeric models were used for defining hematopoietic and tissue-resident cells in viral dissemination and tissue tropism. RESULTS: The paradoxical and interesting finding was that IFN-I signaling was essentially required for CNS neuroinflammation following JEV inoculation in distal footpad tissue. IFN-I signal-competent mice died after a prolonged neurological illness, but IFN-I signal-incompetent mice all succumbed without neurological signs. Rather, IFN-I signal-incompetent mice developed hemorrhage-like disease as evidenced by thrombocytopenia, functional injury of the liver and kidney, increased vascular leakage, and excessive cytokine production. This hemorrhage-like disease was closely associated with quick viral dissemination and impaired IFN-I innate responses before invasion of JEV into the CNS. Using bone marrow (BM) chimeric models, we found that intrinsic IFN-I signaling in tissue-resident cells in peripheral organs played a major role in inducing the hemorrhage-like disease because IFN-I signal-incompetent recipients of BM cells from IFN-I signal-competent mice showed enhanced viral dissemination, uncontrolled cytokine production, and increased vascular leakage. IFN-I signal-deficient hepatocytes and enterocytes were permissive to JEV replication with impaired induction of antiviral IFN-stimulated genes, and neuron cells derived from both IFN-I signal-competent and -incompetent mice were vulnerable to JEV replication. Finally, circulating CD11b+Ly-6C+ monocytes infiltrated into the distal tissues inoculated by JEV participated in quick viral dissemination to peripheral organs of IFN-I signal-incompetent mice at an early stage. CONCLUSION: An IFN-I signal-dependent model is proposed to demonstrate how CD11b+Ly-6C+ monocytes are involved in restricting the tissue tropism of JEV to the CNS.

Comparative analysis of neuroinvasion by Japanese encephalitis virulent and vaccine viral strains in an in vitro model of human blood-brain barrier.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the major cause of viral encephalitis in South East Asia. It has been suggested that, as a consequence of the inflammatory process during JEV infection, there is disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) tight junctions that in turn allows the virus access to the central nervous system (CNS). However, what happens at early times of JEV contact with the BBB is poorly understood. In the present work, we evaluated the ability of both a virulent and a vaccine strain of JEV (JEV RP9 and SA14-14-2, respectively) to cross an in vitro human BBB model. Using this system, we demonstrated that both JEV RP9 and SA14-14-2 are able to cross the BBB without disrupting it at early times post viral addition. Furthermore, we find that almost 10 times more RP9 infectious particles than SA14-14 cross the model BBB, indicating this BBB model discriminates between the virulent RP9 and the vaccine SA14-14-2 strains of JEV. Beyond contributing to the understanding of early events in JEV neuroinvasion, we demonstrate this in vitro BBB model can be used as a system to study the viral determinants of JEV neuroinvasiveness and the molecular mechanisms by which this flavivirus crosses the BBB during early times of neuroinvasion.

Differential miRNA Expression Profiling Reveals Correlation of miR125b-5p with Persistent Infection of Japanese Encephalitis Virus.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play versatile roles in multiple biological processes. However, little is known about miRNA's involvement in flavivirus persistent infection. Here, we used an miRNA array analysis of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV)-infected cells to search for persistent infection-associated miRNAs in comparison to acute infection. Among all differentially expressed miRNAs, the miR-125b-5p is the most significantly increased one. The high level of miR-125b-5p in persistently JEV-infected cells was confirmed by Northern analysis and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. As soon as the cells established a persistent infection, a significantly high expression of miR-125b-5p was readily observed. Transfecting excess quantities of a miR-125b-5p mimic into acutely infected cells reduced genome replication and virus titers. Host targets of miR125b-5p were analyzed by target prediction algorithms, and six candidates were confirmed by a dual-luciferase reporter assay. These genes were upregulated in the acutely infected cells and sharply declined in the persistently infected cells. The transfection of the miR125b-5p mimic reduced the expression levels of Stat3, Map2k7, and Triap1. Our studies indicated that miR-125b-5p targets both viral and host sequences, suggesting its role in coordinating viral replication and host antiviral responses. This is the first report to characterize the potential roles of miR-125b-5p in persistent JEV infections.

Potential Role of Birds in Japanese Encephalitis Virus Zoonotic Transmission and Genotype Shift.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a vaccine-preventable disease caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), which is primarily prevalent in Asia. JEV is a Flavivirus, classified into a single serotype with five genetically distinct genotypes (I, II, III, IV, and V). JEV genotype III (GIII) had been the most dominant strain and caused numerous outbreaks in the JEV endemic countries until 1990. However, recent data shows the emergence of JEV genotype I (GI) as a dominant genotype and it is gradually displacing GIII. The exact mechanism of this genotype displacement is still unclear. The virus can replicate in mosquito vectors and vertebrate hosts to maintain its zoonotic life cycle; pigs and aquatic wading birds act as an amplifying/reservoir hosts, and the humans and equines are dead-end hosts. The important role of pigs as an amplifying host for the JEV is well known. However, the influence of other domestic animals, especially birds, that live in high abundance and close proximity to the human is not well studied. Here, we strive to briefly highlight the role of birds in the JEV zoonotic transmission, discovery of birds as a natural reservoirs and amplifying host for JEV, species of birds susceptible to the JEV infection, and the proposed effect of JEV on the poultry industry in the future, a perspective that has been neglected for a long time. We also discuss the recent in vitro and in vivo studies that show that the newly emerged GI viruses replicated more efficiently in bird-derived cells and ducklings/chicks than GIII, and an important role of birds in the JEV genotype shift from GIII to GI.

Pathogenicity and virulence of Japanese encephalitis virus: Neuroinflammation and neuronal cell damage.

Thousands of human deaths occur annually due to Japanese encephalitis (JE), caused by Japanese encephalitis virus. During the virus infection of the central nervous system, reactive gliosis, uncontrolled inflammatory response, and neuronal cell death are considered as the characteristic features of JE. To date, no specific treatment has been approved to overcome JE, indicating a need for the development of novel therapies. In this article, we focused on basic biological mechanisms in glial (microglia and astrocytes) and neuronal cells that contribute to the onset of neuroinflammation and neuronal cell damage during Japanese encephalitis virus infection. We also provided comprehensive knowledge about anti-JE therapies tested in clinical or pre-clinical settings, and discussed recent therapeutic strategies that could be employed for JE treatment. The improved understanding of JE pathogenesis might lay a foundation for the development of novel therapies to halt JE.Abbreviations AKT: a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase; AP1: activator protein 1; ASC: apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD; ASK1: apoptosis signal-regulated kinase 1; ATF3/4/6: activating transcription factor 3/4/6; ATG5/7: autophagy-related 5/7; BBB: blood-brain barrier; Bcl-3/6: B-cell lymphoma 3/6 protein; CCL: C-C motif chemokine ligand; CCR2: C-C motif chemokine receptor 2; CHOP: C/EBP homologous protein; circRNA: circular RNA; CNS: central nervous system; CXCL: C-X-C motif chemokine ligand; dsRNA: double-stranded RNA; EDEM1: endoplasmic reticulum degradation enhancer mannosidase alpha-like 1; eIF2-ɑ: eukaryotic initiation factor 2 alpha; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinase; GRP78: 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein; ICAM: intercellular adhesion molecule; IFN: interferon; IL: interleukin; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; IRAK1/2: interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 1/2; IRE-1: inositol-requiring enzyme 1; IRF: interferon regulatory factor; ISG15: interferon-stimulated gene 15; JE: Japanese encephalitis; JEV: Japanese encephalitis virus; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; LAMP2: lysosome-associated membrane protein type 2; LC3-I/II: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3-I/II; lncRNA: long non-coding RNA; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; miR/miRNA: microRNA; MK2: mitogen-activated protein kinase-activated protein kinase 2; MKK4: mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 4; MLKL: mixed-linage kinase domain-like protein; MMP: matrix metalloproteinase; MyD88: myeloid differentiation factor 88; Nedd4: neural precursor cell-expressed developmentally downregulated 4; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa B; NKRF: nuclear factor kappa B repressing factor; NLRP3: NLR family pyrin domain containing 3; NMDAR: N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor; NO: nitric oxide; NS2B/3/4: JEV non-structural protein 2B/3/4; P: phosphorylation. p38: mitogen-activated protein kinase p38; PKA: protein kinase A; PAK4: p21-activated kinase 4; PDFGR: platelet-derived growth factor receptor; PERK: protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PTEN: phosphatase and tensin homolog; Rab7: Ras-related GTPase 7; Raf: proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Raf; Ras: a GTPase; RIDD: regulated IRE-1-dependent decay; RIG-I: retinoic acid-inducible gene I; RIPK1/3: receptor-interacting protein kinase 1/3; RNF11/125: RING finger protein 11/125; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SHIP1: SH2-containing inositol 5' phosphatase 1; SOCS5: suppressor of cytokine signaling 5; Src: proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src; ssRNA = single-stranded RNA; STAT: signal transducer and activator of transcription; TLR: toll-like receptor; TNFAIP3: tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 3; TNFAR: tumor necrosis factor alpha receptor; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; TRAF6: tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6; TRIF: TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-ß; TRIM25: tripartite motif-containing 25; VCAM: vascular cell adhesion molecule; ZO-1: zonula occludens-1.

Mosquito defensin facilitates Japanese encephalitis virus infection by downregulating the C6/36 cell-surface antiviral protein HSC70B.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a viral zoonosis that can cause viral encephalitis, death and disability whose primary vector is the Culex mosquito. Viral infection induces a series of antimicrobial peptide responses in mosquitoes, and the effector defensin enhances JEV replication in mosquitoes. However, the underlying mechanisms by which defensin enhances JEV are not fully understood. Here, we found that mosquito defensin could downregulate the antiviral protein HSC70B and enhance virus infection in mosquitoes. The cell-surface protein HSC70B was significantly downregulated by JEV infection and defensin treatment. Low levels of HSC70B were beneficial to JEV infection in mosquitoes. Taken together, these findings show that defensin and HSC70B axis facilitates JEV infection in the mosquito.

Outcome of Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV) Infection in Pediatric and Adult Patients at Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR.

Although Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection is an important cause of acute febrile illness in Lao PDR (Laos), patient outcome has not been evaluated. We prospectively followed up 123 JEV-infected patients (70 children < 15 years and 53 adults ≥ 15 years) admitted at Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, from 2003 to 2013. Japanese encephalitis virus infection was diagnosed by the detection of anti-JEV IgM in cerebrospinal fluid and/or IgM seroconversion. Neurological sequelae were assessed using the Liverpool Outcome Score (LOS), total (maximum score = 75), and final (maximum score = 5). The median (interquartile range [IQR]) age of the patients was 12.0 (7.5-18.8) years, and 57% were male. The median (IQR) duration of patients' follow-up was 4.5 (3.2-7.3) years. Of all patients, 10/123 (8.1%) died during hospitalization, and 13/123 (10.6%) died at home after discharge, giving a mortality of 18.7% (23/123) (33 [26.8%] patients were lost to follow-up). The frequency of neurological sequelae at the last follow-up was 61.2% (48.4% in adults and 69.4% in children, P = 0.135). The proportion of patients with severe and moderate functional impairment at the last follow-up was significantly higher in children (25%) than in adults (6.5%), P = 0.042. Half of the patients who were still alive at the last follow-up (67) and for whom LOS data were available (22) had improvements in their total and final LOS between discharge and the last follow-up. The total and final LOS at discharge were not significantly different between children and adults, but total LOS at the last follow-up was significantly higher in adults than in children (median [IQR]: 74.5 [73-75] versus 73.0 [73-75], P = 0.019).

CRISPR screening of porcine sgRNA library identifies host factors associated with Japanese encephalitis virus replication.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic flavivirus that causes encephalitis and reproductive disorders in mammalian species. However, the host factors critical for its entry, replication, and assembly are poorly understood. Here, we design a porcine genome-scale CRISPR/Cas9 knockout (PigGeCKO) library containing 85,674 single guide RNAs targeting 17,743 protein-coding genes, 11,053 long ncRNAs, and 551 microRNAs. Subsequently, we use the PigGeCKO library to identify key host factors facilitating JEV infection in porcine cells. Several previously unreported genes required for JEV infection are highly enriched post-JEV selection. We conduct follow-up studies to verify the dependency of JEV on these genes, and identify functional contributions for six of the many candidate JEV-related host genes, including EMC3 and CALR. Additionally, we identify that four genes associated with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) metabolism, specifically those responsible for HSPGs sulfurylation, facilitate JEV entry into porcine cells. Thus, beyond our development of the largest CRISPR-based functional genomic screening platform for pig research to date, this study identifies multiple potentially vulnerable targets for the development of medical and breeding technologies to treat and prevent diseases caused by JEV.

Impaired Autophagy Flux is Associated with Proinflammatory Microglia Activation Following Japanese Encephalitis Virus Infection.

Role of autophagy in Japanese encephalitis viral (JEV) infection is not well known. In the present study, we reported the role of autophagy flux in microglia activation, neurobehavioral function and neuronal death using a mouse model of JEV. Markers for autophagy (LC3-II/I, SQSTM1/P62, phos-Akt, phos-AMPK), and neuronal death (cleaved caspase 12, H2Ax, polyubiquitin) were investigated by western blot at 1, 3 and 7 days post inoculation. Cathepsin D was measured in cerebral cotex of JEV infected mice spectrophotometrically. Microglia activation and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1ß, TNF-α, IFNγ, IL6) were measured by immunohistochemistry, western blot and qPCR analysis. In order to determine the neuroinflammatory changes and autophagy mediated neuronal cell death, BV2-microglia and N2a-neuronal cells were used. Autophagy activation marker LC3-II/I and its substrate SQSTM1/P62 were significantly increased while cathepsin D activity was decreased on day 7 post inoculation in cerebral cortex. Microglia in cortex were activated and showed higher expression of proinflammatory mRNA of IL1ß, TNF-α, IFNγ and IL6, with increased DNA damage (H2AX) and neuronal cell death pathways in hippocampus and neurobehavioral dysfunction. Similar observations on JEV infection mediated autophagy flux inhibition and neuronal cell death was found in N2a neuronal cell. Collectively, our study provides evidence on the role of autophagy regulation, microglial activation and neurodegeneration following JEV infection.

Genome-wide profiling of host-encoded circular RNAs highlights their potential role during the Japanese encephalitis virus-induced neuroinflammatory response.

BACKGROUND: Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is one of the common causes of acute encephalitis in humans. Japanese encephalitis is characterized by the uncontrolled release of inflammatory cytokines, which ultimately results in neuronal cell damage. In recent years, with the advancement of high-throughput sequencing technology, studies have shown that circRNAs, by competing with endogenous miRNAs, play a vital role in the pathology of CNS diseases. However, it is unknown whether circRNAs participate in JEV-induced neuroinflammation. RESULTS: By employing Illumina RNA-sequencing, we identified 180 circRNAs and 58 miRNAs that showed significant differential expression in JEV-infected mice brain tissues. The functional enrichment analyses revealed that these differentially regulated circRNAs were predominantly related to neurotransmission, histone modifications, transcription misregulation, and inflammation-associated calcium signaling pathway. Our established competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) interaction network suggested the correlation of several circRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs in regulating the inflammatory response during JEV infection. Among the predicted interactions, the correlation between circ_0000220, miR-326-3p, and BCL3/MK2/TRIM25 mRNAs was experimentally validated by knockdown or overexpression of the non-coding RNA entities in cultured mouse microglia. The knockdown of circ_0000220 or overexpression of miR-326-3p caused a lower production of JEV-induced inflammatory cytokines. CONCLUSIONS: Conclusively, our study provides new insights into the host response to JEV infection and proposes the circRNA-targeting therapeutic interventions to rein in Japanese encephalitis.