Minimally invasive bioprinting for in situ liver regeneration.

In situ bioprinting is promising for developing scaffolds directly on defect models in operating rooms, which provides a new strategy for in situ tissue regeneration. However, due to the limitation of existing in situ biofabrication technologies including printing depth and suitable bioinks, bioprinting scaffolds in deep dermal or extremity injuries remains a grand challenge. Here, we present an in vivo scaffold fabrication approach by minimally invasive bioprinting electroactive hydrogel scaffolds to promote in situ tissue regeneration. The minimally invasive bioprinting system consists of a ferromagnetic soft catheter robot for extrusion, a digital laparoscope for in situ monitoring, and a Veress needle for establishing a pneumoperitoneum. After 3D reconstruction of the defects with computed tomography, electroactive hydrogel scaffolds are printed within partial liver resection of live rats, and in situ tissue regeneration is achieved by promoting the proliferation, migration, and differentiation of cells and maintaining liver function in vivo.