Sex differences in resting-state functional connectivity in multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Multiple studies have demonstrated evidence of sex differences in patients with MS, including differences in disease progression, cognitive decline, and biologic markers. This study used functional connectivity MRI to investigate sex differences in the strength of functional connectivity of the default mode network in patients with MS and healthy control subjects. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 16 men and 16 women with MS and 32 age- and sex-matched healthy control subjects underwent a whole-brain resting-state functional connectivity MRI scan. A group-based seed in the posterior cingulate was used to create whole-brain correlation maps. A 2 × 2 ANOVA was used to assess whether disease status and sex affected the strength of connectivity to the posterior cingulate. RESULTS: Patients with MS showed significantly stronger connectivity from the posterior cingulate to the bilateral medial frontal gyri, the left ventral anterior cingulate, the right putamen, and the left middle temporal gyrus (P < .0005). In the left dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, female patients showed significantly stronger connectivity to the posterior cingulate cortex compared with female control subjects (P = 3 × 10(4)), and male control subjects showed stronger posterior cingulate cortex-left dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex connectivity in comparison to female control subjects (P = .002). Male patients showed significantly weaker connectivity to the caudate compared with female patients (P = .004). CONCLUSIONS: Disease status and sex interact to produce differences in the strength of functional connectivity from the posterior cingulate to the caudate and the left dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex.

Polychlorinated biphenyls in freshwater salmonids from the Kerguelen Islands in the Southern Ocean.

The Subantarctic Kerguelen Islands (49°S, 70°E) contain freshwater ecosystems among the most isolated in the world. Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were assessed in the muscle of 48 brook trout and 38 brown trout caught during summer and spring 2006 in the rivers, lakes and ponds of Kerguelen. The sum of 29 PCBs averaged 404 and 358 ng g(-1) lipid, and dioxin-like PCB was 19 and 69 ng g(-1) lipid, in brook and brown trout, respectively. The values showed a high variability and some fish accumulated PCBs at levels similar to those of fish from impacted areas. While inter-sex differences were limited, the season and the morphotype appeared to have the most influence. Fish captured in summer had muscle PCB concentrations about three times higher than those caught in spring and the 'river' morphotype of brook trout showed the highest PCB levels.

Effects of habitat on individual reproductive success of mature male parr of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar.

The effect of the presence of stone blocks in the spawning habitat on the reproductive success of mature male parr of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar of various sizes and ages was tested in an artificial channel. Shelters allowed smaller individuals to contribute to egg fertilization as much as large parr, suggesting that the size-based dominance observed in a shelterless habitat was not maintained in a more complex habitat.

Introgression in the genus Salmo via allotriploids.

Hybridization between sympatric species is not uncommon in the wild. Wild allotriploids (individuals with two chromosome sets from a species + one chromosome set from another species) are generally the result of a backcross between interspecific hybrids that produce unreduced gametes and one of the parental species. In animals, allotriploids are commonly sterile, except for some vertebrate species complexes in which allotriploids reproduce by parthenogenesis, gynogenesis and/or hybridogenesis, producing generally clonal or hemiclonal gametes; nuclear DNA introgression between hybridizing species is considered to be extremely rare. Employing species-specific molecular markers, we show genetic introgression between the chromosomally well-differentiated salmonids Atlantic salmon (2n = 58) and brown trout (2n = 80) through spontaneous bisexual reproduction of allotriploids leading to salmon-like offspring bearing some brown trout genes. Although introgression between these Salmo species can occur via allotriploids, we hypothesize that extinction of parental species can be discarded based on very low survival of allotriploid offspring.

Observation of muon neutrino disappearance with the MINOS detectors in the NuMI neutrino beam.

This Letter reports results from the MINOS experiment based on its initial exposure to neutrinos from the Fermilab NuMI beam. The rates and energy spectra of charged current nu(mu) interactions are compared in two detectors located along the beam axis at distances of 1 and 735 km. With 1.27 x 10(20) 120 GeV protons incident on the NuMI target, 215 events with energies below 30 GeV are observed at the Far Detector, compared to an expectation of 336+/-14 events. The data are consistent with nu(mu) disappearance via oscillations with |Delta(m)2/32|=2.74 +0.44/-0.26 x10(-3)eV(2) and sin(2)(2theta(23))>0.87 (68% C.L.).

Dispersal and rapid evolution in brown trout colonizing virgin Subantarctic ecosystems.

Two brown trout Salmo trutta stocks of different origin (wild Polish, domestic commercial) came into secondary contact after deliberate releases conducted in virgin rivers systems of the Subantarctic Kerguelen Islands (70 degrees E 49 degrees S). Samples obtained in 2001-2003 and a historical sample from 1993 were analysed for genetic variation at seven microsatellite loci and one allozyme locus (LDH-C1*). Bayesian clustering analysis demonstrated that rapid genetic differentiation formed separate genetic units in neighbouring rivers in less than 20 years. These genetic units were characterized by a large proportion of Polish genotypes mixed with some genomes of domestic origin (up to 30%). A different colonization strategy of the naturalized stocks, likely related with differential performance, was identified as a cause of rapid population differentiation in this area.

Interspecific barriers between salmonids when hybridisation is due to sneak mating.

Male sneaking behaviour can lead to interspecific hybridisation if sneakers attempt to fertilise ova in heterospecific mating, contributing to break down of interspecific barriers. In south European rivers, sneaking Atlantic salmon males fertilise an important proportion of ova from adult females in heterospecific crosses, up to 65%. In a south French flow-controlled stream, we found that they were able to naturally fertilise brown trout ova in absence of brown trout males. Aggressiveness of brown trout males towards sneaking salmon males and low survival of hybrids issued from salmon sneakers are found to be interspecific barriers.

Origin recognition complex binding to a metazoan replication origin.

The initiation of DNA replication in eukaryotic cells at the onset of S phase requires the origin recognition complex (ORC) [1]. This six-subunit complex, first isolated in Saccharomyces cerevisiae [2], is evolutionarily conserved [1]. ORC participates in the formation of the prereplicative complex [3], which is necessary to establish replication competence. The ORC-DNA interaction is well established for autonomously replicating sequence (ARS) elements in yeast in which the ARS consensus sequence [4] (ACS) constitutes part of the ORC binding site [2, 5]. Little is known about the ORC-DNA interaction in metazoa. For the Drosophila chorion locus, it has been suggested that ORC binding is dispersed [6]. We have analyzed the amplification origin (ori) II/9A of the fly, Sciara coprophila. We identified a distinct 80-base pair (bp) ORC binding site and mapped the replication start site located adjacent to it. The binding of ORC to this 80-bp core region is ATP dependent and is necessary to establish further interaction with an additional 65-bp of DNA. This is the first time that both the ORC binding site and the replication start site have been identified in a metazoan amplification origin. Thus, our findings extend the paradigm from yeast ARS1 to multicellular eukaryotes, implicating ORC as a determinant of the position of replication initiation.

Alternative mating strategies in Atlantic salmon and brown trout.

By screening variable number of tandem repeat (VNTR) loci, multiple paternity within clutches has been found in wild populations of southern European Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (Salmo trutta). For Atlantic salmon, we determined the relative contribution of alternative male phenotypes to the next generation. Individual males that are morphologically juvenile yet sexually mature fertilized a large proportion of eggs, and they thereby contributed to an increase of genetic variability in wild populations via (1) balancing the sex ratio, (2) increasing outbreeding, and (3) enlarging the effective population size, in part a consequence of (1) and (2). In addition, these precocious males ensured that interspecific spawns involving Atlantic salmon females and brown trout males (a fairly common occurrence in southern Europe where the two species are sympatric) resulted mostly in Atlantic salmon progeny. For brown trout, preliminary genetic results indicated that multiple paternity, when present, was not due to alternative mating strategies by males, but rather to successive fertilizations by adult suitors.

Multiple paternity increases effective size of southern Atlantic salmon populations.

Genetic analyses were performed on the progeny of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) sampled in natural redds of three rivers flowing into the Bay of Biscay, the Nivelle, the Mandeo and the Sella. These rivers are at the southern limit of the European distribution of the species and their populations are small and endangered by human activities. Nine variable number of tandem repeat (VNTR) loci (five minisatellites and four microsatellites) were used for parentage analysis. Multiple male participation was recognized in the fertilization of eggs. A large proportion was fertilized by precociously mature parr. We demonstrate that multiple paternity derived from mature parr is crucial for the conservation of genetic variability in small populations of Atlantic salmon.

Reproductive behavioural sequences of single pairs of Atlantic salmon in an experimental stream.

We studied 12 size-matched pairs of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, in an experimental stream in southwest France, to determine whether fish activity and motivation changed during the course of reproduction. The absolute weight of spawners did not affect their spawning activity. On average, females deposited their eggs within 3 days in nine nests. Male and female breeding behaviours changed throughout the reproductive period. This cyclic variation in behaviour appeared to be determined in part by the activity of the other sex, as a consequence of complex interplay between the sexes, but also largely by the stage of the spawning period. During the first three ovipositions, male-female stimulus-reaction chaining became more consistent just before spawning, which may help synchronize gamete release for successful fertilization. During the last three ovipositions, sequence chaining between the sexes was less coherent, possibly as a result of reduced mate attractiveness and/or physiological limitations. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

DNA binding by the KP repressor protein inhibits P-element transposase activity in vitro.

P elements are a family of mobile DNA elements found in Drosophila. P-element transposition is tightly regulated, and P-element-encoded repressor proteins are responsible for inhibiting transposition in vivo. To investigate the molecular mechanisms by which one of these repressors, the KP protein, inhibits transposition, a variety of mutant KP proteins were prepared and tested for their biochemical activities. The repressor activities of the wild-type and mutant KP proteins were tested in vitro using several different assays for P-element transposase activity. These studies indicate that the site-specific DNA-binding activity of the KP protein is essential for repressing transposase activity. The DNA-binding domain of the KP repressor protein is also shared with the transposase protein and resides in the N-terminal 88 amino acids. Within this region, there is a C2HC putative metal-binding motif that is required for site-specific DNA binding. In vitro the KP protein inhibits transposition by competing with the transposase enzyme for DNA-binding sites near the P-element termini.

Transposase makes critical contacts with, and is stimulated by, single-stranded DNA at the P element termini in vitro.

P elements transpose by a cut-and-paste mechanism. Donor DNA cleavage mediated by transposase generates 17 nucleotide (nt) 3' single-strand extensions at the P element termini which, when present on oligonucleotide substrates, stimulate both the strand-transfer and disintegration reactions in vitro. A significant amount of the strand-transfer products are the result of double-ended integration. Chemical DNA modification-interference experiments indicate that during the strand-transfer reaction, P element transposase contacts regions of the substrate DNA that include the transposase binding site and the duplex portion of the 31 bp inverted repeat, as well as regions of the terminal 17 nt single-stranded DNA. Together these data suggest that the P element transposase protein contains two DNA-binding sites and that the active oligomeric form of the transposase protein is at least a dimer.

Drosophila P-element transposase is a novel site-specific endonuclease.

We developed in vitro assays to study the first step of the P-element transposition reaction: donor DNA cleavage. We found that P-element transposase required both 5' and 3' P-element termini for efficient DNA cleavage to occur, suggesting that a synaptic complex forms prior to cleavage. Transposase made a staggered cleavage at the P-element termini that is novel for all known site-specific endonucleases: the 3' cleavage site is at the end of the P-element, whereas the 5' cleavage site is 17 bp within the P-element 31-bp inverted repeats. The P-element termini were protected from exonucleolytic degradation following the cleavage reaction, suggesting that a stable protein complex remains bound to the element termini after cleavage. These data are consistent with a cut-and-paste mechanism for P-element transposition and may explain why P elements predominantly excise imprecisely in vivo.

Drosophila IRBP/Ku p70 corresponds to the mutagen-sensitive mus309 gene and is involved in P-element excision in vivo.

The P family of transposable elements in Drosophila transpose by a cut-and-paste mechanism involving double-strand gap repair. We report here that a Drosophila mutagen-sensitive mutant, mus3O9, contains a mutation in IRBP (inverted repeat binding protein), the Drosophila homolog of the mammalian Ku p70 gene. We show that the repair of double-strand DNA breaks after P-element excision is severely reduced in mus3O9 mutants using an in vivo assay for P-element transposase activity. In addition, excision products recovered from mus3O9 mutant embryos by use of a plasmid-based P-element mobility assay contain large deletions, suggesting that IRBP is involved in the repair of double-strand DNA breaks. Our findings provide the first demonstration that a mutation in the IRBP gene affects double-strand DNA break repair and suggest that DNA repair functions are conserved between Drosophila and mammals.

A Drosophila protein homologous to the human p70 Ku autoimmune antigen interacts with the P transposable element inverted repeats.

P transposable elements in Drosophila are mobilized via a cut-and-paste mechanism. This mode of transposition requires repair of both a double-strand break at the donor DNA site and gapped DNA at the target site. Biochemical studies have identified a cellular non-P element-encoded DNA binding protein, termed the inverted repeat binding protein (IRBP), that specifically interacts with the outer half of the 31-bp terminal inverted repeats. Protein sequence information was used to isolate cDNA clones encoding IRBP. Sequence analysis shows that IRBP is related to the 70-kDa subunit of the human Ku autoimmune antigen. The mammalian Ku antigen binds free DNA termini and has been implicated in immunoglobulin VDJ recombination, DNA repair, and transcription. In addition, Ku is the DNA binding subunit of the double-strand DNA-dependent protein kinase. Cytogenetic mapping indicates that the IRBP gene maps to chromosomal position 86E on the right arm of the third chromosome.

Classification of hepatitis C virus into six major genotypes and a series of subtypes by phylogenetic analysis of the NS-5 region.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) showed substantial nucleotide sequence diversity distributed throughout the viral genome, with many variants showing only 68 to 79% overall sequence similarity to one another. Phylogenetic analysis of nucleotide sequences derived from part of the gene encoding a non-structural protein (NS-5) has provided evidence for six major genotypes of HCV amongst a worldwide collection of 76 samples from HCV-infected blood donors and patients with chronic hepatitis. Many of these HCV types comprised a number of more closely related subtypes, leading to a current total of 11 genetically distinct viral populations. Phylogenetic analysis of other regions of the viral genome produced relationships between published sequences equivalent to those found in NS-5, apart from the more highly conserved 5' non-coding region in which only the six major HCV types, but not subtypes, could be differentiated. A new nomenclature for HCV variants is proposed in this communication that reflects the two-tiered nature of sequence differences between different viral isolates. The scheme classifies all known HCV variants to date, and describes criteria that would enable new variants to be assigned within the classification as they are discovered.

The conserved pre-mRNA splicing factor U2AF from Drosophila: requirement for viability.

The large subunit of the human pre-messenger RNA splicing factor U2 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein auxiliary factor (hU2AF65) is required for spliceosome assembly in vitro. A complementary DNA clone encoding the large subunit of Drosophila U2AF (dU2AF50) has been isolated. The dU2AF50 protein is closely related to its mammalian counterpart and contains three carboxyl-terminal ribonucleoprotein consensus sequence RNA binding domains and an amino-terminal arginine- and serine-rich (R/S) domain. Recombinant dU2AF50 protein complements mammalian splicing extracts depleted of U2AF activity. Germline transformation of Drosophila with the dU2AF50 complementary DNA rescues a lethal mutation, establishing that the dU2AF50 gene is essential for viability. R/S domains have been found in numerous metazoan splicing factors, but their function is unknown. The mutation in Drosophila U2AF will allow in vivo analysis of a conserved R/S domain-containing general splicing factor.

At least five related, but distinct, hepatitis C viral genotypes exist.

Hepatitis C virus, the major causative agent of blood-borne non-A, non-B hepatitis in the world, has been the subject of considerable nucleic acid sequence analysis. Although all reported hepatitis C sequences from the United States have been represented by the prototype hepatitis C virus type 1 sequence, two groups of variant sequences have been reported in Japan. However, we have noted five distinct, but related, genotypes (I-V) throughout the world, based on detailed sequence determination and analysis of the first 1700 nucleotides and part of the nonstructural region 5 at the C terminus of the open reading frame. The nucleotide sequence for a large number of hepatitis C virus isolates spanning six continents was obtained by direct sequence analysis of PCR products after reverse transcription. Genotype was classified by using several distinct sequence motifs. We observed that most genotypes coexist in several geographic regions, including the United States, Japan, Germany, and Italy. So far, genotype V has been found only in South Africa. Interestingly, each distinct genotype seems to be maintained throughout the genome in the segments studied. These genotype distinctions should be considered when designing specific diagnostic tests, developing potential vaccines, and studying viral transmission.

Comparison of hepatitis C virus markers in patients with NANB hepatitis.

10 different HCV-specific assays and RT-PCR of the 5' untranslated region of HCV RNA were used to analyze sixty-four patients with chronic NANB liver disease. Po, CP-9 and C22 antigens are located in the putative core; C33c in the putative NS3; C100-3 in the putative NS3/4; KCL in the putative NS4/5 and C825 is located in the putative NS5. GOR protein is not part of the HCV genome, but antibodies to it appear to be present in response to a hepatitis C infection. Positive rates were 91% for Po, 89% for CP-9, 94% for C22, 97% for C33c, 88% for C100-3 (Ortho, EIA), 86% for C100-3 (Abbott, EIA), 84% for C100-3 (Ohtsuka, RIA), 88% for KCL, 59% for C825, 58% for GOR, and 83% for RT-PCR. There were 8 cases which were negative by all anti-C100 tests. 7 of these cases were positive by other anti-HCV markers and/or PCR suggesting the need for improved blood screening assays. There is a variation in the relative reactivity for different markers with different samples. Of the tests employed, anti C33c shows the highest positivity rate.