The effects of five sessions of continuous theta burst stimulation over contralesional sensorimotor cortex paired with paretic skilled motor practice in people with chronic stroke.

BACKGROUND: In individuals with chronic stroke, impairment of the paretic arm may be exacerbated by increased contralesional transcallosal inhibition (TCI). Continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) can decrease primary motor cortex (M1) excitability and TCI. However, contralesional cTBS shows inconsistent effects after stroke. Variable effects of cTBS could stem from failure to pair stimulation with skilled motor practice or a focus of applying cTBS over M1. OBJECTIVE: Here, we investigated the effects of pairing cTBS with skilled practice on motor learning and arm function. We considered the differential effects of stimulation over two different brain regions: contralesional M1 (M1c) or contralesional primary somatosensory cortex (S1c). METHODS: 37 individuals with chronic stroke participated in five sessions of cTBS and paretic arm skilled practice of a serial targeting task (STT); participants received either cTBS over M1c or S1c or sham before STT practice. Changes in STT performance and Wolf Motor Function Test (WMFT) were assessed as primary outcomes. Assessment of bilateral corticospinal, intracortical excitability and TCI were secondary outcomes. RESULTS: cTBS over sensorimotor cortex did not improve STT performance and paretic WMFT-rate beyond sham cTBS. TCI was reduced bi-directionally following the intervention, regardless of stimulation group. In addition, we observed an association between STT performance change and paretic WMFT-rate change in the M1c stimulation group only. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple sessions of STT practice can improve paretic arm function and decrease TCI bilaterally, with no additional benefit of prior cTBS. Our results suggest that improvement in STT practice following M1c cTBS scaled with change in paretic arm function in some individuals. Our results highlight the need for a better understanding of the mechanisms of cTBS to effectively identify who may benefit from this form of brain stimulation.

White Matter Biomarkers Associated with Motor Change in Individuals with Stroke: A Continuous Theta Burst Stimulation Study.

Continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) is a form of noninvasive repetitive brain stimulation that, when delivered over the contralesional hemisphere, can influence the excitability of the ipsilesional hemisphere in individuals with stroke. cTBS applied prior to skilled motor practice interventions may augment motor learning; however, there is a high degree of variability in individual response to this intervention. The main objective of the present study was to assess white matter biomarkers of response to cTBS paired with skilled motor practice in individuals with chronic stroke. We tested the effects of stimulation of the contralesional hemisphere at the site of the primary motor cortex (M1c) or primary somatosensory cortex (S1c) and a third group who received sham stimulation. Within each stimulation group, individuals were categorized into responders or nonresponders based on their capacity for motor skill change. Baseline diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) indexed the underlying white matter microstructure of a previously known motor learning network, named the constrained motor connectome (CMC), as well as the corticospinal tract (CST) of lesioned and nonlesioned hemispheres. Across practice, there were no differential group effects. However, when categorized as responders vs. nonresponders using change in motor behaviour, we demonstrated a significant difference in CMC microstructural properties (as measured by fractional anisotropy (FA)) for individuals in M1c and S1c groups. There were no significant differences between responders and nonresponders in clinical baseline measures or microstructural properties (FA) in the CST. The present study identifies a white matter biomarker, which extends beyond the CST, advancing our understanding of the importance of white matter networks for motor after stroke.

Sensorimotor integration in healthy aging: Baseline differences and response to sensory training.

Sensorimotor integration is the process through which somatosensory information is incorporated to inform motor output. Given its important behavioural implications, understanding the influence of healthy aging on the underlying neurophysiology of sensorimotor integration and whether it is modifiable through intervention is important. The aims of the current work were to: 1) profile aging-related differences in sensorimotor integration, and 2) to determine if sensorimotor integration in older adults can be modulated in response to sensory training. A group of older healthy individuals and younger healthy individuals participated in two experimental sessions. First, baseline neurophysiology of sensorimotor integration was assessed. Short-latency afferent inhibition, afferent facilitation, and long-latency afferent inhibition provided nerve-based assessment of sensorimotor integration. Vibration-based measures of sensorimotor integration combined vibration of abductor pollicis brevis with single and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation techniques. In the second experimental session, a 15-min block of sensory training designed to modulate sensorimotor integration preceded the same neurophysiological assessment. Results indicate that there are aging-related differences in nerve-based measures of sensorimotor integration, specifically short- and long-latency afferent inhibition. In contrast, there are not aging-related differences when peripheral muscle belly vibration is used to probe sensorimotor integration. Following sensory training there is a reduction in the cortical response to vibration. These results suggest that there is differential aging-related modulation of sensorimotor integration, based on the type of afferent information. Additionally, sensorimotor integration is modifiable with a single session of sensory training, and this ability for neuroplastic change is retained with healthy aging.

Extraction of corticospinal tract microstructural properties in chronic stroke.

BACKGROUND: Information about the structural integrity of the corticospinal tract (CST) from diffusion-weighted imaging can improve our ability to understand motor outcomes in people with upper limb impairment after stroke, especially those with severe impairment. Yet, there is no consensus on which method of CST generation most accurately represents function and impairment in individuals with chronic stroke. NEW METHOD: The aim of the study was to compare different methods of CST reconstruction and resulting microstructural properties, as well as the relationship between these properties and motor function and impairment. Fifteen individuals with mild-moderate impairment and 15 with severe impairment who were in the chronic phase post-stroke underwent a diffusion-weighted imaging scan and motor function and impairment assessments. RESULTS: Different relationships existed between reconstruction methods, microstructural properties, and impairment and function. In severe stroke, fractional anisotropy (FA) emerged over and above apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) and tract number to index CST integrity; FA correlated with impairment and function, whereas ADC and tract number did not correlate. No significant differences between methods or microstructural properties were found in mild-moderate stroke. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: Our study demonstrates that CST reconstruction method influences the extraction of microstructural integrity in individuals with chronic severe stroke, with FA appearing to be the most representative method. A similar line of investigation is warranted earlier post-stroke. CONCLUSION: Differences in this data set highlight the need to establish a common methodology for CST reconstruction and analysis which may eliminate discrepancies in interpreting DWI and enhance biomarker use post-stroke for motor function.

Effect of aerobic exercise on cancer-associated cognitive impairment: A proof-of-concept RCT.

BACKGROUND: Change in cognitive ability is a commonly reported adverse effect by breast cancer survivors. The underlying etiology of cognitive complaints is unclear and to date, there is limited evidence for effective intervention strategies. Exercise has been shown to improve cognitive function in older adults and animal models treated with chemotherapy. This proof-of-concept randomized controlled trial tested the effect of aerobic exercise versus usual lifestyle on cognitive function in postmenopausal breast cancer survivors. METHODS: Women, aged 40 to 65 years, postmenopausal, stages I to IIIA breast cancer, and who self-reported cognitive dysfunction following chemotherapy treatment, were recruited and randomized to a 24-week aerobic exercise intervention (EX; n = 10) or usual lifestyle control (CON; n = 9). Participants completed self-report measures of the impact of cognitive issues on quality of life (Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Cognitive version 3), objective neuropsychological testing, and functional magnetic resonance imaging at baseline and 24 weeks. RESULTS: Compared to CON, EX had a reduced time to complete a processing speed test (trail making test-A) (-14.2 seconds, P < .01; effect size 0.35). Compared to CON, there was no improvement in self-reported cognitive function and effect sizes were small. Interestingly, lack of between-group differences in Stroop behavioral performance was accompanied by functional changes in several brain regions of interest in EX compared to CON at 24 weeks. CONCLUSION: These findings provide preliminary proof-of-concept results for the potential of aerobic exercise to improve cancer-related cognitive impairment and will serve to inform the development of future trials.

Differentiation of motor evoked potentials elicited from multiple forearm muscles: An investigation with high-density surface electromyography.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive method to measure corticospinal excitability of the primary motor cortex. However, motor evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited by TMS in a target muscle are variable; inconsistent MEPs may be due to overlapping cortical muscle representations and/or volume conduction from neighbouring muscles. The source of variable muscle responses may not be apparent using conventional bipolar electromyography (EMG), particularly over areas with several distinct neighbouring muscles (e.g. the forearm). High-density surface EMG (HDsEMG) may provide a useful means to investigate the underlying variability in amplitude and spatial distribution of MEPs. Here, we investigated the spatial distribution of MEPs in the forearm extensors using HDsEMG. HDsEMG consisted of a 16×5 grid of surface electrodes placed on the right (dominant) dorsal forearm over the extensor carpi radialis (ECR), ulnaris (ECU) and extensor digitorum communis finger extensors (EDC). MEP amplitude and distribution were recorded from 100 to 170% of resting (RMT) and active motor threshold (AMT). The distribution of MEPs was correlated to the activity recorded during selective, isometric contractions of the ECR, ECU, middle (EDC-D3) and ring (EDC-D4) finger extensors to determine the spatial distribution of MEPs in the forearm extensors. Although ECR was the hotspot, resting MEP spatial distribution was primarily correlated to that of EDC-D4 and ECU. With background ECR activation, the spatial distribution of MEPs correlated strongly with ECR. Further, while holding a background ECR contraction, EDC-D4 and ECU MEPs increased with greater stimulation intensity. Our results suggest that HDsEMG provides a useful way to differentiate which wrist extensor muscles are activated by TMS.

The reliability of commonly used electrophysiology measures.

BACKGROUND: Electrophysiological measures can help understand brain function both in healthy individuals and in the context of a disease. Given the amount of information that can be extracted from these measures and their frequent use, it is essential to know more about their inherent reliability. OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS: To understand the reliability of electrophysiology measures in healthy individuals. We hypothesized that measures of threshold and latency would be the most reliable and least susceptible to methodological differences between study sites. METHODS: Somatosensory evoked potentials from 112 control participants; long-latency reflexes, transcranial magnetic stimulation with resting and active motor thresholds, motor evoked potential latencies, input/output curves, and short-latency sensory afferent inhibition and facilitation from 84 controls were collected at 3 visits over 24 months at 4 Track-On HD study sites. Reliability was assessed using intra-class correlation coefficients for absolute agreement, and the effects of reliability on statistical power are demonstrated for different sample sizes and study designs. RESULTS: Measures quantifying latencies, thresholds, and evoked responses at high stimulator intensities had the highest reliability, and required the smallest sample sizes to adequately power a study. Very few between-site differences were detected. CONCLUSIONS: Reliability and susceptibility to between-site differences should be evaluated for electrophysiological measures before including them in study designs. Levels of reliability vary substantially across electrophysiological measures, though there are few between-site differences. To address this, reliability should be used in conjunction with theoretical calculations to inform sample size and ensure studies are adequately powered to detect true change in measures of interest.

An acute bout of exercise modulates both intracortical and interhemispheric excitability.

Primary motor cortex (M1) excitability is modulated following a single session of cycling exercise. Specifically, short-interval intracortical inhibition and intracortical facilitation are altered following a session of cycling, suggesting that exercise affects the excitability of varied cortical circuits. Yet we do not know whether a session of exercise also impacts the excitability of interhemispheric circuits between, and other intracortical circuits within, M1. Here we present two experiments designed to address this gap in knowledge. In experiment 1, single and paired pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) were used to measure intracortical circuits including, short-interval intracortical facilitation (SICF) tested at 1.1, 1.5, 2.7, 3.1 and 4.5 ms interstimulus intervals (ISIs), contralateral silent period (CSP) and interhemispheric interactions by measuring transcallosal inhibition (TCI) recorded from the abductor pollicus brevis muscles. All circuits were assessed bilaterally pre and two time points post (immediately, 30 min) moderate intensity lower limb cycling. SICF was enhanced in the left hemisphere after exercise at the 1.5 ms ISI. Also, CSP was shortened and TCI decreased bilaterally after exercise. In Experiment 2, corticospinal and spinal excitability were tested before and after exercise to investigate the locus of the effects found in Experiment 1. Exercise did not impact motor-evoked potential recruitment curves, Hoffman reflex or V-wave amplitudes. These results suggest that a session of exercise decreases intracortical and interhemispheric inhibition and increases facilitation in multiple circuits within M1, without concurrently altering spinal excitability. These findings have implications for developing exercise strategies designed to potentiate M1 plasticity and skill learning in healthy and clinical populations.

Multiple measures of corticospinal excitability are associated with clinical features of multiple sclerosis.

In individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) may be employed to assess the integrity of corticospinal system and provides a potential surrogate biomarker of disability. The purpose of this study was to provide a comprehensive examination of the relationship between multiple measures corticospinal excitability and clinical disability in MS (expanded disability status scale (EDSS)). Bilateral corticospinal excitability was assessed using motor evoked potential (MEP) input-output (IO) curves, cortical silent period (CSP), short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI), intracortical facilitation (ICF) and transcallosal inhibition (TCI) in 26 individuals with MS and 11 healthy controls. Measures of corticospinal excitability were compared between individuals with MS and controls. We evaluated the relationship(s) between age and clinical demographics such as age at MS onset (AO), disease duration (DD) and clinical disability (EDSS) with measures of corticospinal excitability. Corticospinal excitability thresholds were higher, MEP latency and CSP onset delayed and MEP durations prolonged in individuals with MS compared to controls. Age, DD and EDSS correlated with corticospinal excitability thresholds. Also, TCI duration and the linear slope of the MEP amplitude IO curve correlated with EDSS. Hierarchical regression modeling demonstrated that combining multiple TMS-based measures of corticospinal excitability accounted for unique variance in clinical disability (EDSS) beyond that of clinical demographics (AO, DD). Our results indicate that multiple TMS-based measures of corticospinal and interhemispheric excitability provide insights into the potential neural mechanisms associated with clinical disability in MS. These findings may aid in the clinical evaluation, disease monitoring and prediction of disability in MS.

Sustained attention abnormalities in breast cancer survivors with cognitive deficits post chemotherapy: An electrophysiological study.

OBJECTIVE: Many breast cancer survivors (BCS) report cognitive problems following chemotherapy, yet controversy remains concerning which cognitive domains are affected. This study investigated a domain crucial to daily function: the ability to maintain attention over time. METHODS: We examined whether BCS who self-reported cognitive problems up to 3 years following cancer treatment (n=19) performed differently from healthy controls (HC, n=12) in a task that required sustained attention. Participants performed a target detection task while periodically being asked to report their attentional state. Electroencephalogram was recorded during this task and at rest. RESULTS: BCS were less likely to maintain sustained attention during the task compared to HC. Further, the P3 event-related potential component elicited by visual targets during the task was smaller in BCS relative to HC. BCS also displayed greater neural activity at rest. CONCLUSIONS: BCS demonstrated an abnormal pattern of sustained attention and resource allocation compared to HC, suggesting that attentional deficits can be objectively observed in breast cancer survivors who self-report concentration problems. SIGNIFICANCE: These data underscore the value of EEG combined with a less traditional measure of sustained attention, or attentional states, as objective laboratory tools that are sensitive to subjective complaints of chemotherapy-related attentional impairments.

Understanding the role of the primary somatosensory cortex: Opportunities for rehabilitation.

Emerging evidence indicates impairments in somatosensory function may be a major contributor to motor dysfunction associated with neurologic injury or disorders. However, the neuroanatomical substrates underlying the connection between aberrant sensory input and ineffective motor output are still under investigation. The primary somatosensory cortex (S1) plays a critical role in processing afferent somatosensory input and contributes to the integration of sensory and motor signals necessary for skilled movement. Neuroimaging and neurostimulation approaches provide unique opportunities to non-invasively study S1 structure and function including connectivity with other cortical regions. These research techniques have begun to illuminate casual contributions of abnormal S1 activity and connectivity to motor dysfunction and poorer recovery of motor function in neurologic patient populations. This review synthesizes recent evidence illustrating the role of S1 in motor control, motor learning and functional recovery with an emphasis on how information from these investigations may be exploited to inform stroke rehabilitation to reduce motor dysfunction and improve therapeutic outcomes.

Comparing a diffusion tensor and non-tensor approach to white matter fiber tractography in chronic stroke.

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)-based tractography has been used to demonstrate functionally relevant differences in white matter pathway status after stroke. However, it is now known that the tensor model is insensitive to the complex fiber architectures found in the vast majority of voxels in the human brain. The inability to resolve intra-voxel fiber orientations may have important implications for the utility of standard DTI-based tract reconstruction methods. Intra-voxel fiber orientations can now be identified using novel, tensor-free approaches. Constrained spherical deconvolution (CSD) is one approach to characterize intra-voxel diffusion behavior. In the current study, we performed DTI- and CSD-based tract reconstruction of the corticospinal tract (CST) and corpus callosum (CC) to test the hypothesis that characterization of complex fiber orientations may improve the robustness of fiber tract reconstruction and increase the sensitivity to identify functionally relevant white matter abnormalities in individuals with chronic stroke. Diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging was performed in 27 chronic post-stroke participants and 12 healthy controls. Transcallosal pathways and the CST bilaterally were reconstructed using DTI- and CSD-based tractography. Mean fractional anisotropy (FA), apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), axial diffusivity (AD), and radial diffusivity (RD) were calculated across the tracts of interest. The total number and volume of reconstructed tracts was also determined. Diffusion measures were compared between groups (Stroke, Control) and methods (CSD, DTI). The relationship between post-stroke motor behavior and diffusion measures was evaluated. Overall, CSD methods identified more tracts than the DTI-based approach for both CC and CST pathways. Mean FA, ADC, and RD differed between DTI and CSD for CC-mediated tracts. In these tracts, we discovered a difference in FA for the CC between stroke and healthy control groups using CSD but not DTI. CSD identified ipsilesional CST pathways in 9 stroke participants who did not have tracts identified with DTI. Additionally, CSD differentiated between stroke ipsilesional and healthy control non-dominant CST for several measures (number of tracts, tract volume, FA, ADC, and RD) whereas DTI only detected group differences for number of tracts. In the stroke group, motor behavior correlated with fewer diffusion metrics derived from the DTI as compared to CSD-reconstructed ipsilesional CST and CC. CSD is superior to DTI-based tractography in detecting differences in diffusion characteristics between the nondominant healthy control and ipsilesional CST. CSD measures of microstructure tissue properties related to more motor outcomes than DTI measures did. Our results suggest the potential utility and functional relevance of characterizing complex fiber organization using tensor-free diffusion modeling approaches to investigate white matter pathways in the brain after stroke.

Bimanual elbow exoskeleton: Force based protocol and rehabilitation quantification.

An aging population, along with the increase in cardiovascular disease incidence that accompanies this demographic shift, is likely to increase both the economic and medical burden associated with stroke in western societies. Rehabilitation, the standard treatment for stroke, can be expanded and augmented with state of the art technologies, such as robotic therapy. This paper expands upon a recent work involving a force-feedback master-slave bimanual exoskeleton for elbow rehabilitation, named a Bimanual Wearable Robotic Device (BWRD). Elbow force data acquired during the execution of custom tasks is analyzed to demonstrate the feasibility of tracking patient progress. Two training tasks that focus on applied forces are examined. The first is called "slave arm follow", which uses the absolute angular impulse as a metric; the second is called "conditional arm static", which uses the rise time to target as a metric, both presented here. The outcomes of these metrics are observed over three days.

Motor skill acquisition across short and long time scales: a meta-analysis of neuroimaging data.

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we explore how the time scale of practice affects patterns of brain activity associated with motor skill acquisition. Fifty-eight studies that involved skill learning with healthy participants (117 contrasts) met inclusion criteria. Two meta-contrasts were coded: decreases: peak coordinates that showed decreases in brain activity over time; increases: peak coordinates that showed increases in activity over time. Studies were grouped by practice time scale: short (≤1 h; 25 studies), medium (>1 and ≤24 h; 18 studies), and long (>24h to 5 weeks; 17 studies). Coordinates were analyzed using Activation Likelihood Estimation to show brain areas that were consistently activated for each contrast. Across time scales, consistent decreases in activity were shown in prefrontal and premotor cortex, the inferior parietal lobules, and the cerebellar cortex. Across the short and medium time scales there were consistent increases in supplementary and primary motor cortex and dentate nucleus. At the long time scale, increases were seen in posterior cingulate gyrus, primary motor cortex, putamen, and globus pallidus. Comparisons between time scales showed that increased activity in M1 at medium time scales was more spatially consistent across studies than increased activity in M1 at long time scales. Further, activity in the striatum (viz. putamen and globus pallidus) was consistently more rostral in the medium time scale and consistently more caudal in the long time scale. These data support neurophysiological models that posit that both a cortico-cerebellar system and a cortico-striatal system are active, but at different time points, during motor learning, and suggest there are associative/premotor and sensorimotor networks active within each system.

The establishment of a 3D breast photography service in medical illustration.

This paper aims to describe the development of a 3D breast photography service managed by the Medical Illustration Department, in the Belfast Health and Social Care Trust, Northern Ireland. Dedicated 3D breast photography equipment was installed in Medical Illustration for 18 months. Women were referred for a variety of indications including pre- and post-surgical assessment. A dedicated 3D breast photography protocol was developed locally and this requires further refinement to allow reproducibility in other centres. There are image/data artefacts associated with this technology and special techniques are required to reduce these. Specialist software is necessary for clinicians and scientists to use 3D breast photography data in surgical planning and measurement of surgical outcome.

Evaluation of white matter myelin water fraction in chronic stroke.

Multi-component T2 relaxation imaging (MCRI) provides specific in vivo measurement of myelin water content and tissue water environments through myelin water fraction (MWF), intra/extra-cellular water fraction (I/EWF) and intra/extracellular and global geometric mean T2 (GMT2) times. Quantitative MCRI assessment of tissue water environments has provided new insights into the progression and underlying white matter pathology in neural disorders such as multiple sclerosis. It has not previously been applied to investigate changes in white matter in the stroke-affected brain. Thus, the purposes of this study were to 1) use MCRI to index myelin water content and tissue water environments in the brain after stroke 2) evaluate relationships between MWF and diffusion behavior indexed by diffusion tensor imaging-based metrics and 3) examine the relationship between white matter status (MWF and fractional anisotropy) and motor behavior in the chronic phase of stroke recovery. Twenty individuals with ischemic stroke and 12 matched healthy controls participated. Excellent to good test/re-test and inter-rater reliability was observed for region of interest-based voxelwise MWF data. Reduced MWF was observed in whole-cerebrum white matter (p < 0.001) and in the ipsilesional (p = 0.017) and contralesional (p = 0.037) posterior limb of internal capsule (PLIC) after stroke compared to whole-cerebrum and bilateral PLIC MWF in healthy controls. The stroke group also demonstrated increased I/EWF, I/E GMT2 and global GMT2 times for whole-cerebrum white matter. Measures of diffusion behavior were also significantly different in the stroke group across each region investigated (p < 0.001). MWF was not significantly correlated with specific tensor-based measures of diffusion in the PLIC for either group. Fractional anisotropy in the ipsilesional PLIC correlated with motor behavior in chronic stroke. These results provide novel insights into tissue-specific changes within white matter after stroke that may have important applications for the understanding of the neuropathology of stroke.

One hertz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over dorsal premotor cortex enhances offline motor memory consolidation for sequence-specific implicit learning.

Consolidation of motor memories associated with skilled practice can occur both online, concurrent with practice, and offline, after practice has ended. The current study investigated the role of dorsal premotor cortex (PMd) in early offline motor memory consolidation of implicit sequence-specific learning. Thirty-three participants were assigned to one of three groups of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over left PMd (5 Hz, 1 Hz or control) immediately following practice of a novel continuous tracking task. There was no additional practice following rTMS. This procedure was repeated for 4 days. The continuous tracking task contained a repeated sequence that could be learned implicitly and random sequences that could not. On a separate fifth day, a retention test was performed to assess implicit sequence-specific motor learning of the task. Tracking error was decreased for the group who received 1 Hz rTMS over the PMd during the early consolidation period immediately following practice compared with control or 5 Hz rTMS. Enhanced sequence-specific learning with 1 Hz rTMS following practice was due to greater offline consolidation, not differences in online learning between the groups within practice days. A follow-up experiment revealed that stimulation of PMd following practice did not differentially change motor cortical excitability, suggesting that changes in offline consolidation can be largely attributed to stimulation-induced changes in PMd. These findings support a differential role for the PMd in support of online and offline sequence-specific learning of a visuomotor task and offer converging evidence for competing memory systems.

Stripe rust resistance genes in the UK winter wheat cultivar Claire.

Stripe rust resistance in the winter wheat cultivar Claire had remained effective in the UK and Europe since its release in 1999 and consequently has been used extensively in wheat breeding programs. However, in 2012, reports indicated that this valuable resistance may now have been compromised. To characterise stripe rust resistance in Claire and determine which genes may still confer effective resistance a cross was made between Claire and the stripe rust susceptible cultivar Lemhi. A genetic linkage map, constructed using SSR, AFLP, DArT and NBS-AFLP markers had a total map length of 1,730 cM. To improve the definition of two quantitative trait loci (QTL) identified on the long arm of chromosome 2D further markers were developed from wheat EST. Stripe rust resistance was evaluated on adult plants under field and glasshouse conditions by measuring the extent of fungal growth and sporulation, percentage infection (Pi) and the necrotic/chlorotic responses of the plant to infection, infection type (IT). Four QTL contributing to stripe rust adult plant resistance (APR) were identified in Claire, QYr.niab-2D.1, QYr.niab-2D.2, QYr.niab-2B and QYr.niab-7B. For Pi QYr.niab-2D.1 explained up to 25.4 % of the phenotypic variation, QYr.niab-2D.2 up to 28.7 %, QYr.niab-2B up to 21.7 % and QYr.niab-7B up to 13.0 %. For IT the percentages of phenotypic variation explained were 23.4, 31.8, 17.2 and 12.6 %, respectively. In addition to the four QTL conferring APR in Claire, a race-specific, seedling expressed resistance gene was identified on chromosome 3B.

Changes in corticospinal excitability following adaptive modification to human walking.

Locomotor adaptations to a novel environment can be measured through changes in muscle activity patterns and lower limb kinematics. The location and mechanisms underlying these adaptive changes are unknown. The purposes of the current study were (1) to determine whether corticospinal tract (CST) excitability is altered by resisted walking and (2) to ascertain whether changes in cortical excitability are muscle specific. Forty healthy participants walked with a robotic gait device (Lokomat) that applied a velocity-dependent resistance against hip and knee movements during walking. CST excitability was assessed by quantifying motor evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited by transcranial magnetic stimulation immediately before and after baseline and resisted walking. MEPs were measured in either the biceps femoris (BF) or the rectus femoris (RF). Recruitment curves were collected by stimulating in 5 % increments from 105 to 145 % of active motor threshold. Results demonstrated a significant increase in MEP amplitude in the BF following baseline walking in the Lokomat. The RF did not demonstrate these changes. There was no further change in MEP size following resisted walking in either muscle group. These results suggest that locomotion increases CST excitability in a muscle-specific fashion. As such, it may be important for determining how to enhance the central nervous system's ability to integrate adaptive strategies during walking.

Identification of adult plant resistance to stripe rust in the wheat cultivar Cappelle-Desprez.

Following the appearance of stripe rust in South Africa in 1996, efforts have been made to identify new sources of durable resistance. The French cultivar Cappelle-Desprez has long been considered a source of durable, adult plant resistance (APR) to stripe rust. As Cappelle-Desprez contains the seedling resistance genes Yr3a and Yr4a, wheat lines were developed from which Yr3a and Yr4a had been removed, while selecting for Cappelle-Desprez derived APR effective against South African pathotypes of the stripe rust fungus, Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici. Line Yr16DH70, adapted to South African wheat growing conditions, was selected and crossed to the stripe rust susceptible cultivar Palmiet to develop a segregating recombinant inbred line mapping population. A major effect QTL, QYr.ufs-2A was identified on the short arm of chromosome 2A derived from Cappelle-Desprez, along with three QTL of smaller effect, QYr.ufs-2D, QYr.ufs-5B and QYr.ufs-6D. QYr.ufs-2D was located within a region on the short arm of chromosome 2D believed to be the location of the stripe rust resistance gene Yr16. An additional minor effect QTL, QYr.ufs-4B, was identified in the cv. Palmiet. An examination of individual RILs carrying single or combinations of each QTL indicated significant resistance effects when QYr.ufs-2A was combined with the three minor QTL from Cappelle-Desprez, and between QYr.ufs-2D and QYr.ufs-5B.