Influenza vaccine-induced human bone marrow plasma cells decline within a year after vaccination.

A universal vaccine against influenza would ideally generate protective immune responses that are not only broadly reactive against multiple influenza strains but also long-lasting. Because long-term serum antibody levels are maintained by bone marrow plasma cells (BMPCs), we investigated the production and maintenance of these cells after influenza vaccination. We found increased numbers of influenza-specific BMPCs 4 weeks after immunization with the seasonal inactivated influenza vaccine, but numbers returned to near their prevaccination levels after 1 year. This decline was driven by the loss of BMPCs induced by the vaccine, whereas preexisting BMPCs were maintained. Our results suggest that most BMPCs generated by influenza vaccination in adults are short-lived. Designing strategies to enhance their persistence will be a key challenge for the next generation of influenza vaccines.

Long-Lived Plasma Cells Are Contained within the CD19(-)CD38(hi)CD138(+) Subset in Human Bone Marrow.

Antibody responses to viral infections are sustained for decades by long-lived plasma cells (LLPCs). However, LLPCs have yet to be characterized in humans. Here we used CD19, CD38, and CD138 to identify four PC subsets in human bone marrow (BM). We found that the CD19(-)CD38(hi)CD138(+) subset was morphologically distinct, differentially expressed PC-associated genes, and exclusively contained PCs specific for viral antigens to which the subjects had not been exposed for more than 40 years. Protein sequences of measles- and mumps-specific circulating antibodies were encoded for by CD19(-)CD38(hi)CD138(+) PCs in the BM. Finally, we found that CD19(-)CD38(hi)CD138(+) PCs had a distinct RNA transcriptome signature and human immunoglobulin heavy chain (VH) repertoire that was relatively uncoupled from other BM PC subsets and probably represents the B cell response's "historical record" of antigenic exposure. Thus, our studies define human LLPCs and provide a mechanism for the life-long maintenance of anti-viral antibodies in the serum.

Diversity, cellular origin and autoreactivity of antibody-secreting cell population expansions in acute systemic lupus erythematosus.

Acute systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) courses with surges of antibody-secreting cells (ASCs) whose origin, diversity and contribution to serum autoantibodies remain unknown. Here, deep sequencing, proteomic profiling of autoantibodies and single-cell analysis demonstrated highly diversified ASCs punctuated by clones expressing the variable heavy-chain region VH4-34 that produced dominant serum autoantibodies. A fraction of ASC clones contained autoantibodies without mutation, a finding consistent with differentiation outside the germinal centers. A substantial ASC segment was derived from a distinct subset of newly activated naive cells of considerable clonality that persisted in the circulation for several months. Thus, selection of SLE autoreactivities occurred during polyclonal activation, with prolonged recruitment of recently activated naive B cells. Our findings shed light on the pathogenesis of SLE, help explain the benefit of agents that target B cells and should facilitate the design of future therapies.

An N-terminal mutation of the Foxp3 transcription factor alleviates arthritis but exacerbates diabetes.

Maintenance of lymphoid homeostasis in a number of immunological and inflammatory contexts is served by a variety of regulatory T (Treg) cell subtypes and depends on interaction of the transcription factor FoxP3 with specific transcriptional cofactors. We report that a commonly used insertional mutant of FoxP3 (GFP-Foxp3) modified its molecular interactions, blocking HIF-1α but increasing IRF4 interactions. The transcriptional profile of these Treg cells was subtly altered, with an overrepresentation of IRF4-dependent transcripts. In keeping with IRF4-dependent function of Treg cells to preferentially suppress T cell help to B cells and Th2 and Th17 cell-type differentiation, GFP-FoxP3 mice showed a divergent susceptibility to autoimmune disease: protection against antibody-mediated arthritis in the K/BxN model, but greater susceptibility to diabetes on the NOD background. Thus, specific subfunctions of Treg cells and the immune diseases they regulate can be influenced by FoxP3's molecular interactions, which result in divergent immunoregulation.

Stability of the regulatory T cell lineage in vivo.

Tissue maintenance and homeostasis can be achieved through the replacement of dying cells by differentiating precursors or self-renewal of terminally differentiated cells or relies heavily on cellular longevity in poorly regenerating tissues. Regulatory T cells (T(reg) cells) represent an actively dividing cell population with critical function in suppression of lethal immune-mediated inflammation. The plasticity of T(reg) cells has been actively debated because it could factor importantly in protective immunity or autoimmunity. By using inducible labeling and tracking of T(reg) cell fate in vivo, or transfers of highly purified T(reg) cells, we have demonstrated notable stability of this cell population under physiologic and inflammatory conditions. Our results suggest that self-renewal of mature T(reg) cells serves as a major mechanism of maintenance of the T(reg) cell lineage in adult mice.

Gut-residing segmented filamentous bacteria drive autoimmune arthritis via T helper 17 cells.

Commensal microbes can have a substantial impact on autoimmune disorders, but the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms remain largely unexplored. We report that autoimmune arthritis was strongly attenuated in the K/BxN mouse model under germ-free (GF) conditions, accompanied by reductions in serum autoantibody titers, splenic autoantibody-secreting cells, germinal centers, and the splenic T helper 17 (Th17) cell population. Neutralization of interleukin-17 prevented arthritis development in specific-pathogen-free K/BxN mice resulting from a direct effect of this cytokine on B cells to inhibit germinal center formation. The systemic deficiencies of the GF animals reflected a loss of Th17 cells from the small intestinal lamina propria. Introduction of a single gut-residing species, segmented filamentous bacteria, into GF animals reinstated the lamina propria Th17 cell compartment and production of autoantibodies, and arthritis rapidly ensued. Thus, a single commensal microbe, via its ability to promote a specific Th cell subset, can drive an autoimmune disease.

Alternative splicing regulates activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID): implications for suppression of AID mutagenic activity in normal and malignant B cells.

The mutagenic enzyme activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) is required for immunoglobulin class switch recombination (CSR) and somatic hypermutation (SHM) in germinal center (GC) B cells. Deregulated expression of AID is associated with various B-cell malignancies and, currently, it remains unclear how AID activity is extinguished to avoid illegitimate mutations. AID has also been shown to be alternatively spliced in malignant B cells, and there is limited evidence that this also occurs in normal blood B cells. The functional significance of these splice variants remains unknown. Here we show that normal GC human B cells and blood memory B cells similarly express AID splice variants and show for the first time that AID splicing variants are singly expressed in individual normal B cells as well as malignant B cells from chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients. We further demonstrate that the alternative AID splice variants display different activities ranging from inactivation of CSR to inactivation or heightened SHM activity. Our data therefore suggest that CSR and SHM are differentially switched off by varying the expression of splicing products of AID at the individual cell level. Most importantly, our findings suggest a novel tumor suppression mechanism by which unnecessary AID mutagenic activities are promptly contained for GC B cells.

Regulated expression of BAFF-binding receptors during human B cell differentiation.

BAFF plays a central role in B-lineage cell biology; however, the regulation of BAFF-binding receptor (BBR) expression during B cell activation and differentiation is not completely understood. In this study, we provide a comprehensive ex vivo analysis of BBRs in human B-lineage cells at various stages of maturation, as well as describe the events that drive and regulate receptor expression. Our data reveal that B-lineage cells ranging from naive to plasma cells (PCs), excluding bone marrow PCs, express BAFF-R uniformly. In contrast, only tonsillar memory B cells (MB) and PCs, from both tonsil and bone marrow tissues, express BCMA. Furthermore, we show that TACI is expressed by MB cells and PCs, as well as a subpopulation of activated CD27(neg) B cells. In this regard, we demonstrate that TACI is inducible early upon B cell activation and this is independent of B cell turnover. In addition, we found that TACI expression requires activation of the ERK1/2 pathway, since its expression was blocked by ERK1/2-specific inhibitors. Expression of BAFF-R and B cell maturation Ag (BCMA) is also highly regulated and we demonstrate that BCMA expression is only acquired in MB cells and in a manner accompanied by loss of BAFF-R expression. This inverse expression coincides with MB cell differentiation into Ig-secreting cells (ISC), since blocking differentiation inhibited both induction of BCMA expression and loss of BAFF-R. Collectively, our data suggest that the BBR profile may serve as a footprint of the activation history and stage of differentiation of normal human B cells.

Divergent effects of BAFF on human memory B cell differentiation into Ig-secreting cells.

B cell-activating factor belonging to the TNF family (BAFF) plays a critical role in B cell maturation, yet its precise role in B cell differentiation into Ig-secreting cells (ISCs) remains unclear. In this study, we find that upon isolation human naive and memory B (MB) cells have prebound BAFF on their surface, whereas germinal center (GC) B cells lack detectable levels of prebound BAFF. We attribute their lack of prebound BAFF to cell activation, because we demonstrate that stimulation of naive and MB cells results in the loss of prebound BAFF. Furthermore, the absence of prebound BAFF on GC B cells is not related to a lack of BAFF-binding receptors or an inability to bind exogenous BAFF. Instead, our data suggest that accessibility to soluble BAFF is limited within GCs, perhaps to prevent skewing of the conventional B cell differentiation program. In support of this concept, whereas BAFF significantly enhances ISC differentiation in response to T cell-dependent activation, we report for the first time the ability of BAFF to considerably attenuate ISC differentiation of MB cells in response to CpG stimulation, a form of T cell-independent activation. Our data suggest that BAFF may be providing regulatory signals during specific T cell-independent events, which protect the balance between MB cells and ISCs outside GCs. Taken together, these data define a complex role for BAFF in humoral immune responses and show for the first time that BAFF can also play an inhibitory role in B cell differentiation.

A role for BLyS in the activation of innate immune cells.

B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS) is a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) ligand superfamily. Although BLyS costimulates adaptive immune cells, the ability of BLyS to stimulate innate immune cells has not been described. Here, we show that BLyS strongly induces human monocyte survival, and activation as measured by proinflammatory cytokine secretion and up-regulation of costimulatory molecule expression. In addition, monocytes cultured with BLyS differentiated into macrophage-like cells. Regarding BLyS receptor(s) expression, freshly isolated monocytes bound low levels of exogenous BLyS and expressed primarily intracellular TACI, and cell surface TACI levels increased following monocyte activation. Of interest, bone marrow monocytes from some multiple myeloma patients expressed significant levels of cell surface TACI at isolation. Our findings indicate that BLyS plays a role in activating innate immune cells. Moreover, this study may explain more clearly why high BLyS production is often correlated with certain inflammatory autoimmune diseases and B-lymphocyte malignancies.

Human B lymphocyte malignancies: exploitation of BLyS and APRIL and their receptors.

B lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS), also referred to as B cell activating factor of the TNF family, is a recently identified tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family member shown to be critical for maintenance of normal B cell development and homeostasis and it shares significant homology with another TNF superfamily member, a proliferation inducing ligand (APRIL). Currently, three receptors have been identified that transmit signals upon BLyS and APRIL binding and these include B cell maturation antigen, B cell activating factor receptor, and transmembrane activator and CAML interactor. The striking effects of BLyS on normal B cell maintenance and survival and the largely B lineage-restricted pattern of receptor expression, raises the possibility that these TNF family ligands and receptors may be involved not only in B cell autoimmunity, but also in the pathogenesis and maintenance of mature B lineage hematological malignancies. In this article, we will review the spectrum of human B lineage malignancies and discuss current evidence supporting a role for BLyS and APRIL in fueling the growth and survival of specific B cell malignancies.

Expression of BCMA, TACI, and BAFF-R in multiple myeloma: a mechanism for growth and survival.

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a progressive disease that is thought to result from multiple genetic insults to the precursor plasma cell that ultimately affords the tumor cell with proliferative potential despite its differentiated phenotype and resistance to undergoing apoptosis. Altered expression of antiapoptotic factors as well as growth factors have been described in a significant number of patients. However, the key regulatory elements that control myeloma development and progression remain largely undefined. Because of the knowledge that B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS), a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family member shown to be critical for maintenance of normal B-cell development and homeostasis, promotes the survival of malignant B cells, we began a coordinated study of BLyS and its receptors in MM. All MM cells studied expressed one or more of 3 known receptors (B-cell maturation antigen [BCMA], transmembrane activator and CAML interactor [TACI], and B-cell activating factor receptor [BAFF-R]) for BLyS; however, the pattern of expression was variable. Additionally, we provide evidence that BLyS can modulate the proliferative capacity and survival of MM cells. Finally, we provide evidence that BLyS is expressed by MM cells and is present in the bone marrow of patients with MM. Expression of BCMA, TACI, and BAFF-R by MM taken together with the ability of BLyS to support MM cell growth and survival has exciting implications because they may be potential therapeutic targets.

Grb2 regulation of the actin-based cytoskeleton is required for ligand-independent EGF receptor-mediated oncogenesis.

Mutations within members of the EGF/ErbB receptor family frequently release the oncogenic potential of these receptors, resulting in the activation of downstream signaling events independent of ligand regulatory constraints. We previously have demonstrated that the signal transduction events originating from S3-v-ErbB, a ligand-independent, oncogenic EGF receptor mutant, are qualitatively distinct from the ligand-dependent mitogenic signaling pathways associated with the wild-type EGF receptor. Specifically, expression of S3-v-ErbB in primary fibroblasts results in anchorage-independent growth, increased invasive potential, and the formation of a transformation-specific phosphoprotein signaling complex, all in a Ras-independent manner. Here we demonstrate the transformation-specific interaction between two components of this complex: the adaptor protein Grb2 and the cytoskeletal regulatory protein caldesmon. This interaction is mediated via both the amino-terminal SH3 and central SH2 domains of Grb2, and the amino-terminal (myosin-binding) domain of caldesmon. Expression of a dominant-negative Grb2 deletion mutant, which lacks the carboxy-terminal SH3 domain, in fibroblasts expressing S3-v-ErbB results in a reduction in phosphoprotein complex formation, the loss of anchorage-independent growth, and a reduction in invasive potential. Together, these results demonstrate a Ras-independent role for Grb2 in modulating cytoskeletal function during ligand-independent EGF receptor-mediated transformation, and provide further support for the hypothesis that ligand-independent oncogenic signaling is qualitatively distinct from ligand-dependent mitogenic signaling by the EGF receptor.