A retrospective study of horses investigated for weight loss despite a good appetite (2002-2011).

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Weight loss despite a good appetite is a frequent diagnostic challenge for equine veterinarians; however, there are few objective reports and little descriptive information regarding risk factors and prognostic indicators. OBJECTIVES: To provide a descriptive epidemiological analysis of horses evaluated for weight loss despite a good appetite and evaluate relationships between historical and clinicopathological findings and final outcome (survival vs. nonsurvival) to identify risk factors and prognostic indicators. METHODS: Medical records of horses referred for investigation of weight loss despite a good appetite were reviewed. Data collated included history, case details, clinical and diagnostic findings, diagnoses and outcome. Univariable associations were evaluated with a Mann-Whitney U test (continuous data), Fisher's exact test (categorical or binary data) or Pearson's rank correlation (continuous data), with P≤0.05 significant. RESULTS: Forty cases met the inclusion criteria. Total protein (P = 0.004) and albumin concentrations (P = 0.0008) at admission were higher in survivors than nonsurvivors, with total protein (r(2) = 0.31; P = 0.002) and albumin (r(2) = 0.36; P = 0.0002) positively correlated with outcome. Hypoproteinaemic (P = 0.008, odds ratio (OR) = 12, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.99-72.4) and hypoalbuminaemic (P = 0.0009, OR = 28, 95% CI = 2.94-266.6) animals were at greater odds for nonsurvival. Body condition score was positively correlated with total protein (r(2) = 0.16; P = 0.05) and albumin (r(2) = 0.53; P<0.0001) concentrations at admission and duration of clinical signs (r(2) = 0.19; P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: The severity of hypoproteinaemia and hypoalbuminaemia were related with nonsurvival. Body condition score and albumin concentration could potentially be used as prognostic indicators for survival. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: These findings highlight the importance of body condition assessment in conjunction with clinicopathological evaluation in horses with weight loss despite a good appetite.

Use of qualitative methods to identify solutions to selected equine welfare problems in Ireland.

This paper explores the views of those in the Irish equine industry, organisations and government regarding necessary improvements to equine welfare in Ireland at unregulated gatherings and during the disposal process. Three qualitative research methods were employed, namely semistructured interviews, focus groups and a structured, facilitated workshop. Representatives from industry, welfare societies, socially disadvantaged groupings and government engaged with this process and shared their views regarding horse welfare and implementable solutions with merit to address welfare problems. A consensus was achieved that equine welfare in Ireland could be improved by the development of a comprehensive identification system, a Code of Practice for horse gatherings, a horse licensing scheme, ring-fenced funding to promote responsible, humane horse disposal and better means of raising awareness of the value of safeguarding horse welfare for the benefit of all parties.

Case study of equine welfare on an Irish farm: 2007 to 2009.

This report describes the progression in welfare standards for horses on a horse farm in the Republic of Ireland between 2007 and 2009. Visits to the farm were undertaken and information, in the form of written notes and digital recording of observations and examinations, was gathered in consultation with officials from the Gardaí (the Irish police), the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and the Irish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Further independent veterinary corroboration of clinical findings and laboratory support occurred following seizure of the horses. The complex reality of on-farm equine welfare problems and the difficulties in achieving a resolution are discussed compared with other species conventionally considered to be food-producing animals.

Evaluation of current equine welfare issues in Ireland: causes, desirability, feasibility and means of raising standards.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Significant potential threats to the health and welfare of horses exist in Ireland when supply exceeds demand and the identification system for horses is not yet robust. OBJECTIVES: To secure engagement with stakeholder groups and determine their perception of equine welfare in Ireland and encourage the development of inclusive, rather than imposed, policy solutions. METHODS: A 3 round, web-based Policy Delphi incorporating novel vignette methodology was conducted from November 2007-March 2008 to canvass opinion (in both quantitative and qualitative forms) on the perceived most significant equine welfare issues. Vignettes (narratives depicting potential compromise to equine welfare) were employed. Quantitative data were collected in the form of scoring on a 9 point Likert scale with labelled end-points, qualitative information as text subsequently analysed for themes. RESULTS: All 44 respondents completed all rounds. Major equine welfare issues were identified as welfare of horses during the disposal process and at unregulated gatherings. Assessed quantitatively on a 9 point Likert scale (0 = minimal; 8 = maximal), respondents scored the desirability and feasibility of improving standards, median 8 and 6, respectively, for both issues identified. Basic themes identified in respondents' quotes as reasons to raise equine welfare standards were ideological, protection of animal welfare, safe-guarding the reputation of the equine industry and safety (of people, horses and environment). Themes for reasons for low standards were societal norms, fiscal pressures, indolence, indifference and ignorance. Themes underpinning potential means for achieving meaningful change (solutions) were legislation, enforcement, education/training, fiscal remedies, increasing awareness and a combination of these. CONCLUSIONS: Mechanisms aimed at raising standards must be based on an understanding of motivational drivers for currently low standards. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: The challenge is to translate the findings and this heightened awareness into meaningful change to the benefit of horses and those who care for them.

The structure and regulation of the Irish equine industries: Links to considerations of equine welfare.

The equine industries in Ireland are vibrant and growing. They are broadly classified into two sectors: Thoroughbred racing, and sports and leisure. This paper describes these sectors in terms of governance, education and training in equine welfare, and available data concerning horse numbers, identification, traceability and disposal. Animal welfare, and specifically equine welfare, has received increasing attention internationally. There is general acceptance of concepts such as animal needs and persons' responsibilities toward animals in their care, as expressed in the 'Five Freedoms'. As yet, little has been published on standards of equine welfare pertaining to Ireland, or on measures to address welfare issues here. This paper highlights the central role of horse identification and legal registration of ownership to safeguard the health and welfare of horses.

Ascending placentitis in the mare: A review.

Ascending placentitis is a condition that occurs late in pregnancy when bacteria enter the sterile uterus from the lower reproductive tract. It leads to abortion or the birth of premature and weakened foals. Early detection and treatment of this condition is vital for ensuring the production of a viable foal.Mares with ascending placentitis often present in late term pregnancy with signs of premature udder development and premature lactation. There may be a vulvar discharge. Early detection of placental problems is possible using trans-abdominal or trans-rectal ultrasonography. Hormones such as progesterone and relaxin may be measured as indicators of foetal stress and placental failure. Postpartum foetal membranes may be thickened and contain a fibronecrotic exudate. The region most affected is the cervical star. Definitive diagnosis of ascending placentitis is by histopathological examination of the chorioallantoic membrane.Ideal treatment strategies are aimed at curing the infection and prolonging the pregnancy to as close to term as possible and consist of anti-microbials, anti-inflammatories and hormonal support.Swabs are taken from affected mares to determine antibiotic sensitivity and to aid in treatment of foals born from these mares which are at risk of becoming septic. If detected early enough, the chances of producing a viable foal are greatly increased.

Serum antibodies in mares and foals to Actinobacillus equuli whole cells, outer membrane proteins, and Aqx toxin.

Actinobacillus equuli is carried in the alimentary tract of mares and can cause severe septicemia of neonatal foals. A hemolytic subspecies, A. equuli subsp. haemolyticus, and a non-hemolytic subspecies, A. equuli subsp. equuli, have been identified. Hemolytic strains produce the RTX toxin Aqx. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate sequentially in two sets of mare-foal pairs antibodies to A. equuli whole bacterial cells, outer membrane proteins, and recombinant Aqx and to compare the transfer of antibodies to these antigens between mares and their foals. Two mare/foal sets of sera were evaluated. Cohort A consisted of 18 mare-foal pairs obtained in the spring of 2005. Cohort B consisted of 10 mare-foal pairs obtained in the spring of 2006. For both sets, mare and foal sera were obtained immediately after foaling and prior to nursing (time 0) as well as at 12 and 24h and daily thereafter for 7 days. For Cohort B, sera were also obtained 30 days after birth. At parturition all mares had detectable antibodies to A. equuli whole cells and outer membranes; however, of those mares, two in Cohort A had undetectable antibodies to Aqx and their foals likewise had undetectable anti-Aqx antibodies. Antibodies against whole cells, outer membrane proteins, and Aqx were readily transferred from mares to foals. In most cases, there were significant correlations (p<0.05) between antibodies against whole cells, outer membrane proteins, and Aqx in mares' sera at the time of parturition and foal sera 24 after birth. Antibodies against the three antigen preparations had declined insignificantly (p>0.05) by day 30.

Contrast sensitivity under photopic conditions in the Prospective Evaluation of Radial Keratotomy (PERK) Study.

We studied the effect of radial keratotomy on contrast sensitivity in 69 individuals with one eye operated and one eye unoperated in the Prospective Evaluation of Radial Keratotomy (PERK) Study, with a mean follow-up time of 13.8 months (range 6 months to 31 months). We tested contrast sensitivity under normal daylight conditions using both photographic plates and a computer-video apparatus. On average, we found no clinically meaningful loss of contrast sensitivity in eyes after radial keratotomy. However, eyes with radial keratotomy showed a statistically significant decrease in contrast sensitivity at the higher spatial frequencies of 12 and 18 cycles per degree, although all values were within the previously established normal range. Specifically, 44% of the patients had approximately the same contrast sensitivity in both eyes; 40% of the patients had 50% less contrast sensitivity in the operated eye than in the unoperated eye; 16% of the patients had 50% more contrast sensitivity in the operated eye than in the unoperated eye. Contrast sensitivity improved gradually in operated eyes between 6 months and 2 years after surgery. Eyes with radial keratotomy, in which the diameter of the pupil was the same size as or larger than the central clear zone, had slightly decreased contrast sensitivity compared to eyes in which the pupil was smaller than the clear zone.

Morning-to-evening change in refraction, corneal curvature, and visual acuity 2 to 4 years after radial keratotomy in the PERK Study.

The authors previously reported morning-to-evening changes in ophthalmic measurements at 3 months and at 1-year after radial keratotomy in a self-selected group of patients in the Prospective Evaluation of Radial Keratotomy (PERK) study. Fifty-two patients included in the earlier study were examined again between 2 1/2 and 4 years after surgery before 10:00 AM and after 5:30 PM on the same day to determine if the changes persisted beyond 1 year after surgery. Between the morning and evening examinations, 31% of the eyes had an increase in minus spherical equivalent power of the manifest refraction of 0.50 to 1.50 diopters; 12% had a change in cylinder power of 0.50 to 1.00 D; 19% had a decrease in uncorrected visual acuity of two to five Snellen lines; and 29% showed central corneal steepening by 0.50 to 1.00 D. Thus, in some patients, morning-to-evening fluctuation persisted until 2 1/2 to 4 years after radial keratotomy.

Diurnal change in refraction, corneal curvature, visual acuity, and intraocular pressure after radial keratotomy in the PERK Study.

Selected patients who complained of fluctuating visual acuity in the Prospective Evaluation of Radial Keratotomy (PERK) Study were examined before 8:00 a.m. and after 7:00 p.m. on the same day to determine diurnal change in uncorrected visual acuity, best corrected visual acuity, manifest refractive error, average central keratometric power, and intraocular pressure. Sixty-three operated eyes were examined at three months, while 46 operated and 40 unoperated contralateral eyes were examined at one year after radial keratotomy. One year after surgery, 42% of the operated eyes had an increase in minus power of the manifest refraction of 0.50 to 1.25 diopters, 26% of the eyes changed their uncorrected visual acuity by 2 to 4 Snellen lines, and 35% of the operated eyes showed central steepening of the cornea by 0.50 to 1.25 diopters. These changes in the operated eyes at one year were similar to the changes at three months. Minimal diurnal changes occurred in the unoperated eyes at one year. Only 11% of the unoperated eyes changed their manifest refraction by 0.50 to 1.00 diopters, none changed their uncorrected visual acuity by 2 to 4 Snellen lines, and only one of the unoperated eyes changed its central keratometric power by 0.50 diopters. This study documents that many patients who experience diurnal fluctuation of vision have steepening of the cornea and an increase in the minus power of their refraction during the day.