Assessment of Potential Health Hazards During Emission of Hydrogen Sulphide from the Mine Exploiting Copper Ore Deposit - Case Study.

AIM: The aim of this study was to determine hydrogen sulphide concentration emitted from the mine extracting copper ore, to evaluate potential adverse health effects to the population living in four selected villages surrounding the exhaust shaft. MATERIALS: Maximum measured concentration of hydrogen sulphide in the emitter is 286 µg/m³. Maximum emission calculated from the results of determinations of concentrations in the emitter is 0.44 kg/h. RESULTS: In selected villages hydrogen sulphide at concentrations exceeding 4 µg/m³ was not detected in any of the 5-hour air samples. In all locations, the estimated maximum 1-hour concentrations of hydrogen sulphide were below 1 µg/m³, and the estimated mean annual concentrations were below 0.53 µg/m³. CONCLUSION: Any risk to the health of people in the selected area is not expected. As indicated by the available data on the threshold odour, the estimated concentrations of hydrogen sulphide may be sensed by humans.

[Evaluation of methods for monitoring air concentrations of hydrogen sulfide]. / Ocena metod monitoringu stezen siarkowodoru w powietrzu.

The development of different branches of industry and a growing fossil fuels minming results in a considerable emission of by-products. Major air pollutants are: CO, CO2, SO2, SO3, H2S, nitrogen oxides, as well as compounds of an organic arigin. The main aspects of this paper is to review and evaluate methods used for monitoring of hydrogen sulfide in the air. Different instrumental techniques were discussed, electrochemical, chromatographic and spectrophotometric (wet and dry), to select the method most suitable for monitoring low levels of hydrogen sulfide, close to its odor threshold. Based on the literature review the method for H2S determination in the air, involving absorption in aqueous zinc acetate and reaction with N,N-dimethylo-p-phenylodiamine and FeCl3, has been selected and preliminary verified. The adopted method allows for routine measurements of low concentration of hydrogen sulfide, close to its odor threshold in workplaces and ambient air.

[Predictive models for the assessment of occupational exposure to chemicals: a new challenge for employers]. / Bezpomiarowa ocena narazenia zawodowego na substancje chemiczne--nowe wyzwanie dla pracodawców.

Employers are obliged to carry out and document the risk associated with the use of chemical substances. The best but the most expensive method is to measure workplace concentrations of chemicals. At present no "measureless" method for risk assessment is available in Poland, but predictive models for such assessments have been developed in some countries. The purpose of this work is to review and evaluate the applicability of selected predictive methods for assessing occupational inhalation exposure and related risk to check the compliance with Occupational Exposure Limits (OELs), as well as the compliance with REACH obligations. Based on the literature data HSE COSHH Essentials, EASE, ECETOC TRA, Stoffenmanager, and EMKG-Expo-Tool were evaluated. The data on validation of predictive models were also examined. It seems that predictive models may be used as a useful method for Tier 1 assessment of occupational exposure by inhalation. Since the levels of exposure are frequently overestimated, they should be considered as "rational worst cases" for selection of proper control measures. Bearing in mind that the number of available exposure scenarios and PROC categories is limited, further validation by field surveys is highly recommended. Predictive models may serve as a good tool for preliminary risk assessment and selection of the most appropriate risk control measures in Polish small and medium size enterprises (SMEs) providing that they are available in the Polish language. This also requires an extensive training of their future users.

Renal cancer risk and occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and plastics.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and certain plastic monomers increased renal cell carcinoma (RCC) risk. METHODS: Unconditional logistic regression was used to calculate RCC risk in relation to exposure. RESULTS: No association between RCC risk and having ever been occupationally exposed to any polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or plastics was observed. Duration of exposure and average exposure also showed no association with risk. Suggestive positive associations between RCC risk and cumulative exposure to styrene (P-trend = 0.02) and acrylonitrile (P-trend = 0.06) were found. Cumulative exposure to petroleum/gasoline engine emissions was inversely associated with risk (P-trend = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate a possible association between occupational styrene and acrylonitrile exposure and RCC risk. Additional studies are needed to replicate findings, as this is the first time these associations have been reported and they may be due to chance.

Occupational trichloroethylene exposure and renal carcinoma risk: evidence of genetic susceptibility by reductive metabolism gene variants.

Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a suspected renal carcinogen. TCE-associated renal genotoxicity occurs predominantly through glutathione S-transferase (GST) conjugation and bioactivation by renal cysteine beta-lyase (CCBL1). We conducted a case-control study in Central Europe (1,097 cases and 1,476 controls) specifically designed to assess risk associated with occupational exposure to TCE through analysis of detailed job histories. All jobs were coded for organic/chlorinated solvent and TCE exposure (ever/never) as well as the frequency and intensity of exposure based on detailed occupational questionnaires, specialized questionnaires, and expert assessments. Increased risk was observed among subjects ever TCE exposed [odds ratio (OR) = 1.63; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 1.04-2.54]. Exposure-response trends were observed among subjects above and below the median exposure [average intensity (OR = 1.38; 95% CI, 0.81-2.35; OR = 2.34; 95% CI, 1.05-5.21; P(trend) = 0.02)]. A significant association was found among TCE-exposed subjects with at least one intact GSTT1 allele (active genotype; OR = 1.88; 95% CI, 1.06-3.33) but not among subjects with two deleted alleles (null genotype; OR = 0.93; 95% CI, 0.35-2.44; P(interaction) = 0.18). Similar associations for all exposure metrics including average intensity were observed among GSTT1-active subjects (OR = 1.56; 95% CI, 0.79-3.10; OR = 2.77; 95% CI, 1.01-7.58; P(trend) = 0.02) but not among GSTT1 nulls (OR = 0.81; 95% CI, 0.24-2.72; OR = 1.16; 95% CI, 0.27-5.04; P(trend) = 1.00; P(interaction) = 0.34). Further evidence of heterogeneity was seen among TCE-exposed subjects with >or=1 minor allele of several CCBL1-tagging single nucleotide polymorphisms: rs2293968, rs2280841, rs2259043, and rs941960. These findings provide the strongest evidence to date that TCE exposure is associated with increased renal cancer risk, particularly among individuals carrying polymorphisms in genes that are important in the reductive metabolism of this chemical, and provides biological plausibility of the association in humans.

Occupational exposure to organic solvents and breast cancer in women.

BACKGROUND: Although studies in rodents suggest possible associations between exposure to organic solvents and breast cancer, the evidence in humans is limited. METHODS: We evaluated job histories of 2383 incident breast cancer cases diagnosed during 2000-2003, and 2502 controls who participated in a large population-based case-control study in Poland. Industrial hygienists reviewed occupational histories and developed exposure metrics for total organic solvents and benzene. Unconditional logistic regression analyses estimated ORs and 95% CIs as the measure of association with breast cancer, controlling for breast cancer risk factors. Stratified analyses examined the potential modification by known breast cancer risk factors. Associations were also evaluated by oestrogen and progesterone receptor status and by other clinical characteristics of the tumours using polytomous regression analyses. RESULTS: Women who ever worked at jobs with organic solvents exposure had a small, non-significant increase in breast cancer risk (OR=1.16; 95% CI 0.99 to 1.4). A significant association was present for oestrogen receptor- and progesterone receptor-negative tumours (OR 1.40; 95% CI 1.1 to 1.8), but there was no association with tumours with both positive receptors (OR 0.97; 95% CI 0.8 to 1.2 (p heterogeneity: 0.008)). We did not observe trends with increasing level of exposure. Known breast cancer risk factors did not modify the association between organic solvents and breast cancer risk. No association with breast cancer was found for benzene exposure (OR 1.00; 95% CI 0.8 to 1.3). CONCLUSION: Our study provides weak evidence for a possible association between occupational exposure to organic solvents as a class and breast cancer risk. The association might be limited to hormone receptor-negative tumours.

[Occupational exposure limits for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Current legal status and proposed changes]. / Najwyzsze dopuszczalne stezenia wielopierscieniowych weglowodorów aromatycznych (WWA). Obecny stan prawny i propozycje zmian.

BACKGROUND: The evaluation of occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Poland is based on the results of measurements of their concentrations in workplace air compared to appropriate occupational exposure limits. The inconsistence in current regulations is the source of many interpretation-related problems. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this work was to determine PAH concentrations in different technological processes and to analyze statistically the obtained data to indicate the presence (or absence) of differences between exposure indices calculated for 9 PAHs listed in the decree of the Minister of Labor and those (8 compounds) set by the Minister of Health. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Air samples were collected during graphite electrode production, coke production, aluminum smelting, tire production and road paving. PAH concentrations in collected air samples were analyzed by HPLC. RESULTS: The obtained data calculated for each technological process indicate that indices of exposure based on 8 or 9 PAHs, taking into account their relative carcinogenicity, did not differ considerably and are not statistically different from exposure indices calculated for 11 PAHs. CONCLUSIONS: In view that the indices of exposure calculated for 8 and 9 compounds are not statistically different and that of all the PAHs listed in the decree of the Minister of Labor, two compounds are not classified as carcinogenic, it seems justified to substitute the latter by the list of compounds issued by the Minister of Health. The proposed modification should result in a better consistency of legal regulations without altering the quality of the occupational exposure evaluation. Furthermore, removing benzo(a)pyrene and dibenzo(ah)anthracene from the OEL list should solve the existing interpretation-related problems.

[Problems concerning the integration of "derived-no-effect-levels" (DNELS) into occupational safety and health regulations]. / Problemy zwiazane z wprowadzeniem DNEL (Pochodny Poziom Niepowodujacy Zmian) do prawnego systemu ochrony zdrowia pracujacych.

Under the rules of chemical safety assessment, derived-no-effect-levels (DNELs) should be established for all registration-subjected substances, which are put on the market in quantities of 10 tonnes and more per year. DNELs represent exposure levels above which humans should not be exposed to. The purpose of DNELs is to serve as a reference value for determining adequate control of exposure for specific scenarios. Since a considerable number of exposure scenarios may comprise occupational inhalation exposure, DNELs may be wrongly understood as a kind of Occupational Exposure Limit, therefore, the issue of their integration into the national legislation on occupational safety and health (OSH) acquires crucial importance. In this paper, procedures for establishing DNELs and occupational exposure limits in the European Union (OEL) and Poland (MAC) are compared. The role of MAC values in Polish occupational safety and health is also discussed. In occupational inhalation exposure, DNELs may serve as a kind of guidelines and tentative criteria for risk characterization/assessment of substances for which sound scientific MAC values have not yet been determined, however, this requires formal introduction of DNELs into Polish OSH legislation.

Occupation and breast cancer risk in Polish women: a population-based case-control study.

BACKGROUND: The etiology of breast cancer is not well understood and the role of occupational exposures in breast carcinogenesis is still uncertain. METHODS: The population-based case-control study included 2,386 incident breast cancer cases diagnosed in 2000-2003, and 2,502 controls. Lifetime occupational histories and information on other potential breast cancer risk factors were obtained through personal interviews. Conditional logistic regression analyses calculated odds ratios (ORs) associated with various occupations and industries after control for potential confounders. RESULTS: We found statistically significant excesses of breast cancer among engineers (OR=2.0; 95% CI: 1.0-3.8), economists (2.1; 1.1-3.8), sales occupations-retail (1.2; 1.0-1.5), and other sales occupations (1.2; 1.0-1.5). Industries showing significantly elevated risks included special trade contractors (2.2; 1.2-4.3), electronic and electric equipment manufacturers (1.7; 1.1-2.7); and public administration/general government n.e.c. (2.7; 1.3-5.7). Each of these findings was supported by a statistically significant positive trend for duration of employment (P<0.05). A decreased breast cancer risk was observed in janitors and cleaners (0.7; 0.5-0.8). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we found few associations for breast cancer and occupations or industries. The suggestive findings for the electronic and electric equipment manufacturing industry and for the occupations with potential exposure to magnetic fields deserve further evaluation.

Assessing exposure misclassification by expert assessment in multicenter occupational studies.

BACKGROUND: In a multicenter case-control study of lung cancer in central and eastern Europe and in Liverpool, exposure to occupational agents was assessed by teams of local experts. We performed an interteam agreement study to estimate the levels of exposure misclassification and the expected attenuation of the risk estimate. METHODS: Eight teams of experts and a reference rater assessed exposure to 70 putative lung carcinogens for 19 jobs. Agreement among teams was calculated through Cohen's kappa, sensitivity, and specificity. RESULTS: Each team showed an overall fair to good agreement with the reference (kappa between 0.53 and 0.64). The agreement among teams in the presence of exposure was excellent for 9 agents, fair to good for 16, and poor for 29. For all agents the specificity was high (average 0.94), although sensitivity varied considerably. CONCLUSIONS: This study of expert exposure assessment showed a small range in reliability among teams of experts, but large differences among agents. This paper presents the range in levels of misclassification that can be expected using experts for assessing occupational exposure to different agents, and the attenuation of the odds ratio that can be expected to result from this misclassification.

[Polish and worldwide short term exposure limits: concept, interpretation and proposed sampling strategy for assessing short term exposure]. / Krótkoterminowe normatywy higieniczne w Polsce i na swiecie--koncepcja, interpretacja i proponowana strategia pomiarów stezenia chwilowego.

Short term exposure limits (STEL) are introduced to prevent acute effects of substances whose workday concentrations are maintained below OEL-TWA. The aim of this paper was to compare the procedures of setting STEL and practicing their application for chemical agents in Poland and other selected countries (USA, Germany, UK) and in the European Union in general. Based on the review, a new concept of STEL was proposed. It involves drastic decrease in the number of substances with dual hygiene standards and maintenance of departures above TWA within some reasonable limits, depending on variability of concentrations expressed as geometric standard deviation, if the availability of toxicological data is limited. In view of the changed STEL definition, a new air sampling strategy has been proposed. It is based on the worst case samples with possibility of restrain from sampling in case of homogenous exposure.

[Exposure to selected aldehydes among municipal transport bus drivers]. / Narazenie kierowców autobusów komunikacji miejskiej na wybrane aldehydy.

The objective of the study was to determine occupational exposure of municipal transport bus drovers to selected aldehydes: formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and acrolein. Ten drivers serving 5 bus lines were selected for the study. Air samples were collected in the driver's breathing zone and in bus cabins. The test air (about 10 l) was drawn through columns filled with silicagel coated by dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH). The products of DNPH reaction with aldehydes were extracted with acetonitrile and analyzed by HPLC with a spectrophotometric detector (lambda = 360 nm). The analytical procedure enabled to determine the selected aldehydes in the concentration range equivalent to 0.1-2.0 of the Polish maximum allowable concentrations (MAC). In the quantitative analysis, the concentrations of selected aldehydes were found to be much lower than MAC values, regardless of the bus type. The concentrations of formaldehyde and acrolein ranged from 0.025 to 0.090 mg/m3 and from 0.010 to 0.035 mg/m3, respectively. In all samples, acetaldehyde concentrations were well below the limit of detection of the analytical method. The combined exposure to aldehydes was also below the limit value for mixtures.

[Criteria for evaluating exposure to chemical substances in Poland: procedures for suppression and applications]. / Kryteria oceny narazenia na substancje chemiczne w Polsce i na swiecie--procedury ustalania i stosowania.

The major objective of setting values of chemical concentrations in the work environment is to reduce the risk of occupation-related exposure to levels regarded as safe to humans. In the standard setting process, a critical assessment of the available literature data on toxicity of a given chemical and related health effects in the population exposed, depending on concentrations and exposure duration, is essential. Such an assessment performed by a group of experts is a difficult and responsible task since the available data are frequently incomplete and extrapolation of the results of animal experiments aimed at setting limits of concentrations safe to humans raises multiple doubts. The aim of this paper was to compare the procedures of setting permissible values for chemical factors in Poland and throughout the world and to highlight differences in their interpretation. In addition, a brief history of setting admissible limits, as well as definitions of hygiene standards used in Poland, the USA, Germany, the UK and in the former Soviet Union together with the ways of their formulation are presented. The country-to-country variations of attitudes towards setting admissible levels of exposure to carcinogenic agents are worthy of special mention. Maximum admissible concentrations of chemicals in the work environment suggested by experts and adopted by the state administration should not be regarded as constant and completely safe to the human health, thus the existing systems should take account of the need to verify these values with an inflow of updated information on chemical toxicity.

Evaluation of occupational exposure to toxic metals released in the process of aluminum welding.

The objective of this study was to evaluate occupational exposure to welding fumes and its elements on aluminum welders in Polish industry. The study included 52 MIG/Al fume samples and 18 TIG/Al samples in 3 plants. Air samples were collected in the breathing zone of welders (total and respirable dust). Dust concentration was determined gravimetrically, and the elements in the collected dust were determined by AAS. Mean time-weighted average (TWA) concentrations of the welding dusts/fumes and their components in the breathing zone obtained for different welding processes were, in mg/m3: MIG/Al fumes mean 6.0 (0.8-17.8), Al 2.1 (0.1-7.7), Mg 0.2 (< 0.1-0.9), Mn 0.014 (0.002-0.049), Cu 0.011 (0.002-0.092), Zn 0.016 (0.002-0.14), Pb 0.009 (0.005-0.025), Cr 0.003 (0.002-0.007), and TIG/Al fumes 0.7 (0.3-1.4), Al 0.17 (0.07-0.50). A correlation has been found between the concentration of the main components and the fume/dust concentrations in MIG/Al and TIG/Al fumes. Mean percentages of the individual components in MIG/Al fumes/dusts were Al: 30 (9-56) percent; Mg: 3 (1-5.6) percent; Mn: 0.2 (0.1-0.3) percent; Cu: 0.2 (< 0.1-1.8) percent; Zn: 0.2 (< 0.1-0.8) percent; Pb: 0.2 (< 0.1-1) percent; Cr: < 0.1 percent. The proportion of the respirable fraction in the fumes and their constituents varied between 10 percent and 100 percent. The results showed that MIG/Al fumes concentration was 1.2 times higher than the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) threshold limit value (TLV), and the index of the combined exposure to the determined agents was 2.3 (0.4-8.0), mostly because of high Al2O3 contribution. The background concentrations of the components (ca. 5-10 times lower than those in the breathing zone of the welders) did not exceed the Polish MAC value. The elemental composition of total and respirable fume/dust may differ considerably depending on welding methods, the nature of welding-related operations, and work environment conditions.

Occupational exposure to rubber vulcanization products during repair of rubber conveyor belts in a brown coal mine.

Several hundred chemical compounds were found in workroom environments in the rubber industry, but most of the published exposure data relate to the production of tyres; information from the "non-tyre" sections are very limited, if any. This study was carried out to identify chemical substances and measure their air concentrations in the repair shop of a brown coal mine in which damaged rubber conveyor belts were repaired. GC-MS and HPLC analysis of stationary air samples resulted in identification of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons to C12, PAHs, alcohols, phenols, ketones, heterocyclic nitrogen and sulfur compounds. Quantitative evaluation of occupational exposure included determination of organic compound vapours collected on charcoal (GC-MSD), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HPLC), N-nitrosoamines and other amines (GC-NPD) and DNPH derivatives of aldehydes (HPLC) in the breathing zone of workers representing all job titles. The concentrations of investigated compounds were very low. Carcinogenic substances: N-nitrosoamines, benzene, PAHs were not present in workroom air in concentrations exceeding limits of detection of the analytical methods being applied; concentrations of methylisobutylketone, tetrachloroethylene, naphtha, aromatic hydrocarbons, phthalates and aldehydes were much lower than the respective occupational exposure limit values. The results indicate much lower exposure than that reported in the production of tyres and other fabricated rubber products.