Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) are chronic, immune-mediated disorders that include Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. A pediatric onset of disease occurs in about 10% of all cases. Clinical presentation of IBD with rectal bleeding or perianal disease warrants direct referral for endoscopic evaluation. In the absence of red-flag symptoms, a combination of patient history and blood and fecal biomarkers can help to distinguish suspected IBD from other causes of abdominal pain or diarrhea. The therapeutic management of pediatric IBD has evolved by taking into account predictors of poor outcome, which justifies the upfront use of anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy for patients at high risk for complicated disease. In treating patients with IBD, biochemical or endoscopic remission, rather than clinical remission, is the therapeutic goal because intestinal inflammation often persists despite resolution of abdominal symptoms. Pediatric IBD comes with unique additional challenges, such as growth impairment, pubertal delay, the psychology of adolescence, and development of body image. Even after remission has been achieved, many patients with IBD continue to experience nonspecific symptoms like abdominal pain and fatigue. Transfer to adult care is a well-recognized risk for disease relapse, which highlights patient vulnerability and the need for a transition program that is continued by the adult-oriented IBD team. The general pediatrician is an invaluable link in integrating these challenges in the clinical care of patients with IBD and optimizing their outcomes. This state-of-the-art review aims to provide general pediatricians with an update on pediatric IBD to facilitate interactions with pediatric gastrointestinal specialists.

Indeterminate pediatric acute liver failure: Clinical characteristics of a temporal cluster of five children in the Netherlands in the spring of 2022.

There is increasing global concern of severe acute hepatitis of unknown etiology in young children. In early 2022, our center for liver transplantation in the Netherlands treated five children who presented in short succession with indeterminate acute liver failure. Four children underwent liver transplantation, one spontaneously recovered. Here we delineate the clinical course and comprehensive diagnostic workup of these patients. Three of five patients showed a gradual decline of liver synthetic function and had mild neurological symptoms. Their clinical and histological findings were consistent with hepatitis. These three patients all had a past SARS-CoV-2 infection and two of them were positive for adenovirus DNA. The other two patients presented with advanced liver failure and encephalopathy and underwent dialysis as a bridge to transplantation. One of these children spontaneously recovered. We discuss this cluster of patients in the context of the currently elevated incidence of severe acute hepatitis in children.

Severe acute hepatitis and acute liver failure of unknown origin in children: a questionnaire-based study within 34 paediatric liver centres in 22 European countries and Israel, April 2022.

To detect potential concern about severe acute hepatitis in children, we conducted a survey among 50 ERN RARE-LIVER centres. By 26 April 2022, 34 centres, including 25 transplant centres, reported an estimated median of 3-5, 0-2 and 3-5 cases in 2021, 2020 and 2019 and a mean of 2 (range: 0-8) cases between January and April 2022 (mean in 10 large liver transplant centres: 3). Twelve centres reported suspicion of an increase, but no rise.

De-Escalation of Anti-Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Agents and Reduction in Adverse Effects: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: The long-term use of anti-TNF-α agents can lead to adverse effects, such as infections and immune-mediated cutaneous reactions. Whether de-escalation by dose reduction or interval lengthening reduces these adverse effects is uncertain. This systematic review aims to compare the incidence of infections and skin manifestations after anti-TNF-α dose de-escalation with standard dosing. METHODS: MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were searched from inception to 14 January 2022. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies comparing anti-TNF-α de-escalation strategies with standard dosing among patients with inflammatory conditions, that report on infections, skin manifestations, or both, were included. The risk of bias was assessed with the revised Cochrane risk-of bias tool (RCTs) or the Newcastle-Ottawa scale (non-RCTs). RESULTS: Fourteen RCTs and six observational studies (or 2706 patients) were included. Eight RCTs had low risk of bias or some concerns. Four non-RCTs were of good methodological quality. The studies described patients with axial spondyloarthritis (8 studies, 780 patients), rheumatoid arthritis (7 studies, 1458 patients), psoriasis (3 studies, 332 patients), or inflammatory bowel disease (2 studies, 136 patients). De-escalation strategies included interval lengthening (12 studies, 1317 patients), dose reduction (6 studies, 1130 patients), or both (2 studies, 259 patients). Overall, the occurrence of infections and skin manifestations did not differ between standard treatment and de-escalation. The disappearance of infections or skin manifestations after de-escalation was only reported in two studies. The majority of studies focused on etanercept and adalimumab. Heterogeneity in reporting of infections and skin manifestations precluded meta-analysis. CONCLUSION: We found that anti-TNF-α de-escalation does not reduce infections or skin reactions. A de-escalation strategy should not be recommended for the sole purpose of reducing drug-related adverse effects. The meticulous documentation of adverse effects is recommended to further address this question. REGISTRATION: PROSPERO CRD42021252977.

Efficacy of anti-TNF dosing interval lengthening in adolescents and young adults with inflammatory bowel disease in sustained remission (FREE-study): protocol for a partially randomised patient preference trial.

INTRODUCTION: Anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF) therapy has greatly improved treatment outcomes in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), but long-term use is associated with cutaneous reactions, susceptibility to infections and frequent injections or hospital visits. Several non-controlled studies have demonstrated that dose reduction is feasible for a subset of patients, provided that early detection of a disease flare is possible. Here, we aim to compare the effectiveness of interval lengthening with standard dosing in maintaining remission in young patients with IBD. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: In this international, prospective, non-inferiority, partially randomised patient preference trial, we aim to recruit 148 patients aged 12-25 years with luminal Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis in sustained remission (ie, three consecutive in-range faecal calprotectin (FC) results or recently confirmed endoscopic remission). In the interventional arm, the dosing interval will be lengthened from 8 to 12 weeks for infliximab users and from 2 to 3 weeks for adalimumab users. In the control group, standard dosing will be continued. Rapid tests will be performed for FC every 4 weeks and for anti-TNF trough levels every 12 weeks. The primary outcome is the cumulative incidence of out-of-range FC results at 48-week follow-up. Secondary endpoints include time to get out-of-range FC results, cumulative incidence of adverse effects, proportion of patients progressing to loss of response and identification of predictors of successful interval lengthening. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The protocol has been approved by the Medical Ethics Review Committee of the University Medical Centre Groningen and is pending at the other participating centres. Results will be disseminated in peer-reviewed journals and presented at scientific meetings. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: EudraCT number: 2020-001811-26; ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04646187. Protocol version 4, date 17 September 2021.

An algorithm for the classification of mRNA patterns in eosinophilic esophagitis: Integration of machine learning.

BACKGROUND: Diagnostic evaluation of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) remains difficult, particularly the assessment of the patient's allergic status. OBJECTIVE: This study sought to establish an automated medical algorithm to assist in the evaluation of EoE. METHODS: Machine learning techniques were used to establish a diagnostic probability score for EoE, p(EoE), based on esophageal mRNA transcript patterns from biopsies of patients with EoE, gastroesophageal reflux disease and controls. Dimensionality reduction in the training set established weighted factors, which were confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Following weighted factor analysis, p(EoE) was determined by random forest classification. Accuracy was tested in an external test set, and predictive power was assessed with equivocal patients. Esophageal IgE production was quantified with epsilon germ line (IGHE) transcripts and correlated with serum IgE and the Th2-type mRNA profile to establish an IGHE score for tissue allergy. RESULTS: In the primary analysis, a 3-class statistical model generated a p(EoE) score based on common characteristics of the inflammatory EoE profile. A p(EoE) ≥ 25 successfully identified EoE with high accuracy (sensitivity: 90.9%, specificity: 93.2%, area under the curve: 0.985) and improved diagnosis of equivocal cases by 84.6%. The p(EoE) changed in response to therapy. A secondary analysis loop in EoE patients defined an IGHE score of ≥37.5 for a patient subpopulation with increased esophageal allergic inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: The development of intelligent data analysis from a machine learning perspective provides exciting opportunities to improve diagnostic precision and improve patient care in EoE. The p(EoE) and the IGHE score are steps toward the development of decision trees to define EoE subpopulations and, consequently, will facilitate individualized therapy.

FOXP3+ Tregs require WASP to restrain Th2-mediated food allergy.

In addition to the infectious consequences of immunodeficiency, patients with Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS) often suffer from poorly understood exaggerated immune responses that result in autoimmunity and elevated levels of serum IgE. Here, we have shown that WAS patients and mice deficient in WAS protein (WASP) frequently develop IgE-mediated reactions to common food allergens. WASP-deficient animals displayed an adjuvant-free IgE-sensitization to chow antigens that was most pronounced for wheat and soy and occurred under specific pathogen-free as well as germ-free housing conditions. Conditional deletion of Was in FOXP3+ Tregs resulted in more severe Th2-type intestinal inflammation than that observed in mice with global WASP deficiency, indicating that allergic responses to food allergens are dependent upon loss of WASP expression in this immune compartment. While WASP-deficient Tregs efficiently contained Th1- and Th17-type effector differentiation in vivo, they failed to restrain Th2 effector responses that drive allergic intestinal inflammation. Loss of WASP was phenotypically associated with increased GATA3 expression in effector memory FOXP3+ Tregs, but not in naive-like FOXP3+ Tregs, an effect that occurred independently of increased IL-4 signaling. Our results reveal a Treg-specific role for WASP that is required for prevention of Th2 effector cell differentiation and allergic sensitization to dietary antigens.

Eosinophilic esophagitis: published evidences for disease subtypes, indications for patient subpopulations, and how to translate patient observations to murine experimental models.

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the esophagus and commonly classified as a Th2-type allergy. Major advances in our understanding of the EoE pathophysiology have recently been made, but clinicians struggle with highly unpredictable therapy responses indicative of phenotypic diversity within the patient population. Here, we summarize evidences for the existence of EoE subpopulations based on diverse inflammatory characteristics of the esophageal tissue in EoE. Additionally, clinical characteristics of EoE patients support the concept of disease subtypes. We conclude that clinical and experimental evidences indicate that EoE is an umbrella term for conditions that are unified by esophageal eosinophilia but that several disease subgroups with various inflammatory esophageal patterns and/or different clinical features exist. We further discuss strategies to study the pathophysiologic differences as observed in EoE patients in murine experimental EoE. Going forward, models of EoE that faithfully mimic EoE subentities as defined in humans will be essential because mechanistic studies on triggers which regulate the onset of diverse EoE subpopulations are not feasible in patients. Understanding how and why different EoE phenotypes develop will be a first and fundamental step to establish strategies that integrate individual variations of the EoE pathology into personalized therapy.

Allergic skin sensitization promotes eosinophilic esophagitis through the IL-33-basophil axis in mice.

BACKGROUND: Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is an allergic inflammatory disorder characterized by accumulation of eosinophils in the esophagus. EoE often coexists with atopic dermatitis, a chronic inflammatory skin disease. The impaired skin barrier in patients with atopic dermatitis has been suggested as an entry point for allergic sensitization that triggers development of EoE. OBJECTIVE: We sought to define the mechanisms whereby epicutaneous sensitization through a disrupted skin barrier induces development of EoE. METHODS: To elicit experimental EoE, mice were epicutaneously sensitized with ovalbumin (OVA), followed by intranasal OVA challenge. Levels of esophageal mRNA for TH2 cytokines and the IL-33 receptor Il1rl1 (St2) were measured by using quantitative PCR. Esophageal eosinophil accumulation was assessed by using flow cytometry and hematoxylin and eosin staining. In vivo basophil depletion was achieved with diphtheria toxin treatment of Mcpt8DTR mice, and animals were repopulated with bone marrow basophils. mRNA analysis of esophageal biopsy specimens from patients with EoE was used to validate our findings in human subjects. RESULTS: Epicutaneous sensitization and intranasal challenge of wild-type mice resulted in accumulation of eosinophils and upregulation of TH2 cytokines and St2 in the esophagus. Disruption of the IL-33-ST2 axis or depletion of basophils reduced these features. Expression of ST2 on basophils was required to accumulate in the esophagus and transfer experimental EoE. Expression of IL1RL1/ST2 mRNA was increased in esophageal biopsy specimens from patients with EoE. Topical OVA application on unstripped skin induced experimental EoE in filaggrin-deficient flaky tail (ft/ft) mice but not in wild-type control or ft/ft.St2-/- mice. CONCLUSION: Epicutaneous allergic sensitization promotes EoE, and this is critically mediated through the IL-33-ST2-basophil axis.

Electrophysiological Studies into the Safety of the Anti-diarrheal Drug Clotrimazole during Oral Rehydration Therapy.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Morbidity and mortality from acute diarrheal disease remains high, particularly in developing countries and in cases of natural or man-made disasters. Previous work has shown that the small molecule clotrimazole inhibits intestinal Cl- secretion by blocking both cyclic nucleotide- and Ca(2+)-gated K(+) channels, implicating its use in the treatment of diarrhea of diverse etiologies. Clotrimazole, however, might also inhibit transporters that mediate the inwardly directed electrochemical potential for Na(+)-dependent solute absorption, which would undermine its clinical application. Here we test this possibility by examining the effects of clotrimazole on Na(+)-coupled glucose uptake. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Short-circuit currents (Isc) following administration of glucose and secretagogues were studied in clotrimazole-treated jejunal sections of mouse intestine mounted in Ussing chambers. RESULTS: Treatment of small intestinal tissue with clotrimazole inhibited the Cl- secretory currents that resulted from challenge with the cAMP-agonist vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) or Ca(2+)-agonist carbachol in a dose-dependent fashion. A dose of 30 µM was effective in significantly reducing the Isc response to VIP and carbachol by 50% and 72%, respectively. At this dose, uptake of glucose was only marginally affected (decreased by 14%, p = 0.37). There was no measurable effect on SGLT1-mediated sugar transport, as uptake of SGLT1-restricted 3-O-methyl glucose was equivalent between clotrimazole-treated and untreated tissue (98% vs. 100%, p = 0.90). CONCLUSION: Treatment of intestinal tissue with clotrimazole significantly reduced secretory responses caused by both cAMP- and Ca(2+)-dependent agonists as expected, but did not affect Na(+)-coupled glucose absorption. Clotrimazole could thus be used in conjunction with oral rehydration solution as a low-cost, auxiliary treatment of acute secretory diarrheas.

Fatal autoimmunity in mice reconstituted with human hematopoietic stem cells encoding defective FOXP3.

Mice reconstituted with a human immune system provide a tractable in vivo model to assess human immune cell function. To date, reconstitution of murine strains with human hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from patients with monogenic immune disorders have not been reported. One obstacle precluding the development of immune-disease specific "humanized" mice is that optimal adaptive immune responses in current strains have required implantation of autologous human thymic tissue. To address this issue, we developed a mouse strain that lacks murine major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II) and instead expresses human leukocyte antigen DR1 (HLA-DR1). These mice displayed improved adaptive immune responses when reconstituted with human HSCs including enhanced T-cell reconstitution, delayed-type hypersensitivity responses, and class-switch recombination. Following immune reconstitution of this novel strain with HSCs from a patient with immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked (IPEX) syndrome, associated with aberrant FOXP3 function, mice developed a lethal inflammatory disorder with multiorgan involvement and autoantibody production mimicking the pathology seen in affected humans. This humanized mouse model permits in vivo evaluation of immune responses associated with genetically altered HSCs, including primary immunodeficiencies, and should facilitate the study of human immune pathobiology and the development of targeted therapeutics.

Accuracy of digital mRNA profiling of oesophageal biopsies as a novel diagnostic approach to eosinophilic oesophagitis.

BACKGROUND: Quantification of tissue eosinophils remains the golden standard in diagnosing eosinophilic oesophagitis (EoE), but this approach suffers from poor specificity. It has been recognized that histopathological changes that occur in patients with EoE are associated with a disease-specific tissue transcriptome. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that digital mRNA profiling targeted at a set of EoE-specific and Th2 inflammatory genes in oesophageal biopsies could help differentiate patients with EoE from those with reflux oesophagitis (RE) or normal tissue histology (NH). METHODS: The mRNA expression levels of 79 target genes were defined in both proximal and distal biopsies of 196 patients with nCounter® (Nanostring) technology. According to clinicopathological diagnosis, these patients were grouped in a training set (35 EoE, 30 RE, 30 NH) for building of a three-class prediction model using the random forest method, and a blinded predictive set (n = 47) for model validation. RESULTS: A diagnostic model built on ten differentially expressed genes was able to differentiate with 100% sensitivity and specificity between conditions in the training set. In a blinded predictive set, this model was able to correctly predict EoE in 14 of 18 patients in distal (sensitivity 78%, 95% CI 52-93%) and 16 of 18 patients in proximal biopsies (sensitivity 89%, 95% CI 64-98%), without false-positive diagnosis of EoE in RE or NH patients (specificity 100%, 95% CI 85-100%). Sensitivity was increased to 94% (95% CI 71-100%) when either the best predictive distal or proximal biopsy was used. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: We conclude that mRNA profiling of oesophageal tissue is an accurate diagnostic strategy in detecting EoE.

Experience with molecular adsorbent recirculating system treatment in 20 children listed for high-urgency liver transplantation.

For more than 10 years, children at our national center for pediatric liver transplantation (LT) have been treated with Molecular Adsorbent Recirculating System (MARS) liver dialysis as a bridging therapy to high-urgency LT. Treatment was reserved for 20 patients with the highest degrees of hepatic encephalopathy (HE; median grade = 3.5). Death from neurological sequelae was considered imminent for these patients, and this was further reflected in significantly higher international normalized ratios and ammonia levels and worse prognostic liver indices (Model for End-Stage Liver Disease/Pediatric End-Stage Liver Disease scores and liver injury units) in comparison with 32 wait-listed patients who did not receive MARS dialysis. MARS therapy was generally well tolerated, with a reduction in thrombocytes and hemorrhaging as the most common side effects. HE improvement was documented in 30% of the treated patients, but progression to grade IV encephalopathy occurred in 45% of the patients despite the treatment. Serum ammonia, bilirubin, bile acid, and creatinine levels significantly decreased during treatment. Eighty percent of MARS-treated patients survived to undergo LT, and their survival was equivalent to that of non-MARS-treated patients with severe liver failure (69%, P = 0.52). The heterogeneity between MARS-treated patients and non-MARS-treated patients in our cohort precluded a statistical evaluation of a benefit from MARS for patient survival. Our data demonstrate the safety of MARS even in the most severely ill patients awaiting LT, but strategies that promote the more rapid and widespread availability of high-quality donor organs remain of critical importance for improving patient survival in cases of severe acute liver failure.

Pediatric acute liver failure: variations in referral timing are associated with disease subtypes.

UNLABELLED: In pediatric acute liver failure (PALF), rapid referral to a transplant center (TC) is advocated. Clinical variability of PALF may influence referral timing. We aimed to analyze early or late timing of referral in relation to clinical characteristics and outcome in PALF. We conducted a retrospective, single-center, comparative analysis of clinical and liver function parameters in two PALF cohorts (n = 23 per cohort): cohort 1 (early referral, duration of in-patient care before referral (DCR) <7 days) vs. cohort 2 (late referral, DCR ≥ 7 days). Compared to late referrals, patients referred early were more frequently non-icteric and encephalopathic at initial presentation (n = 14 vs. 5 and n = 13 vs. 4, each p < 0.05). Early referred PALF patients had lower hepatic encephalopathy (HE) grades and bilirubin (grade 1 vs. 2, p < 0.02; 215 vs. 439 µmol/l, p < 0.001, respectively) but higher alanine aminotransferase (ALAT) levels (4,340 vs. 963 U/l, p < 0.001). Cumulative poor prognostic indicators were lower in early referrals (2 vs. 4, p < 0.001). In multivariate analysis, subacute liver failure (SLF >7 days between disease onset and development of encephalopathy) was independently associated with late referral (relative risk 9.48; 95 % CI 1.37-64.85, p < 0.02). Differences in survival to discharge were not significant. CONCLUSION: In PALF, referral timing variability is associated with distinct clinical and liver function patterns. Early recognition of prognostic indicators and of SLF may help to improve referral timing and thus PALF management.

Involvement of the iNKT cell pathway is associated with early-onset eosinophilic esophagitis and response to allergen avoidance therapy.

OBJECTIVES: Recent experimental evidence suggests that environmental microbial factors early in life determine susceptibility to allergic diseases through inappropriate chemotaxis and local activation of CD1d-restricted, invariant chain natural killer T (iNKT) cells. In this study, we analyzed the involvement of these pathways in pediatric patients with eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) before and after dietary allergen elimination. METHODS: mRNA expression levels of components of the C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 16 (CXCL16)-iNKT-CD1d axis were compared in esophageal biopsies from EoE patients vs. normal or inflammatory controls and before and after treatment. RESULTS: CXCL16, iNKT cell-associated cell marker Vα24, and CD1d were significantly upregulated in esophageal biopsies from EoE patients and correlated with the expression of inflammatory mediators associated with allergy. Upregulation of each of these factors was significantly more pronounced in patients aged <6 years at diagnosis, and this early-onset EoE subpopulation was characterized by a more prominent food allergic disease phenotype in a cohort-wide analysis. Successful, but not unsuccessful, treatment of early-onset EoE patients with dietary elimination of instigating allergens led to reduction in infiltrating iNKT cells and complete normalization of mRNA expression levels of CXCL16 and CD1d. CONCLUSIONS: Our observations place iNKT cells at the center of allergic inflammation associated with EoE, which could have profound implications for our understanding, treatment and prevention of this and other human allergic diseases.