Functionally distinct roles for TET-oxidized 5-methylcytosine bases in somatic reprogramming to pluripotency.

Active DNA demethylation via ten-eleven translocation (TET) family enzymes is essential for epigenetic reprogramming in cell state transitions. TET enzymes catalyze up to three successive oxidations of 5-methylcytosine (5mC), generating 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC), 5-formylcytosine (5fC), or 5-carboxycytosine (5caC). Although these bases are known to contribute to distinct demethylation pathways, the lack of tools to uncouple these sequential oxidative events has constrained our mechanistic understanding of the role of TETs in chromatin reprogramming. Here, we describe the first application of biochemically engineered TET mutants that unlink 5mC oxidation steps, examining their effects on somatic cell reprogramming. We show that only TET enzymes proficient for oxidation to 5fC/5caC can rescue the reprogramming potential of Tet2-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts. This effect correlated with rapid DNA demethylation at reprogramming enhancers and increased chromatin accessibility later in reprogramming. These experiments demonstrate that DNA demethylation through 5fC/5caC has roles distinct from 5hmC in somatic reprogramming to pluripotency.

TET-mediated 5-methylcytosine oxidation in tRNA promotes translation.

Oxidation of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) in DNA by the ten-eleven translocation (TET) family of enzymes is indispensable for gene regulation in mammals. More recently, evidence has emerged to support a biological function for TET-mediated m5C oxidation in messenger RNA. Here, we describe a previously uncharacterized role of TET-mediated m5C oxidation in transfer RNA (tRNA). We found that the TET-mediated oxidation product 5-hydroxylmethylcytosine (hm5C) is specifically enriched in tRNA inside cells and that the oxidation activity of TET2 on m5C in tRNAs can be readily observed in vitro. We further observed that hm5C levels in tRNA were significantly decreased in Tet2 KO mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) in comparison with wild-type mESCs. Reciprocally, induced expression of the catalytic domain of TET2 led to an obvious increase in hm5C and a decrease in m5C in tRNAs relative to uninduced cells. Strikingly, we also show that TET2-mediated m5C oxidation in tRNA promotes translation in vitro. These results suggest TET2 may influence translation through impacting tRNA methylation and reveal an unexpected role for TET enzymes in regulating multiple nodes of the central dogma.

Selectivity and Promiscuity in TET-Mediated Oxidation of 5-Methylcytosine in DNA and RNA.

Enzymes of the ten-eleven translocation (TET) family add diversity to the repertoire of nucleobase modifications by catalyzing the oxidation of 5-methylcytosine (5mC). TET enzymes were initially found to oxidize 5-methyl-2'-deoxycytidine in genomic DNA, yielding products that contribute to epigenetic regulation in mammalian cells, but have since been found to also oxidize 5-methylcytidine in RNA. Considering the different configurations of single-stranded (ss) and double-stranded (ds) DNA and RNA that coexist in a cell, defining the scope of TET's preferred activity and the mechanisms of substrate selectivity is critical to better understand the enzymes' biological functions. To this end, we have systematically examined the activity of human TET2 on DNA, RNA, and hybrid substrates in vitro. We found that, while ssDNA and ssRNA are well tolerated, TET2 is most proficient at dsDNA oxidation and discriminates strongly against dsRNA. Chimeric and hybrid substrates containing mixed DNA and RNA character helped reveal two main features by which the enzyme discriminates between substrates. First, the identity of the target nucleotide alone is the strongest reactivity determinant, with a preference for 5-methyldeoxycytidine, while both DNA or RNA are relatively tolerated on the rest of the target strand. Second, while a complementary strand is not required for activity, DNA is the preferred partner, and complementary RNA diminishes reactivity. Our biochemical analysis, complemented by molecular dynamics simulations, provides support for an active site optimally configured for dsDNA reactivity but permissive for various nucleic acid configurations, suggesting a broad range of plausible roles for TET-mediated 5mC oxidation in cells.

Exploiting Substrate Promiscuity To Develop Activity-Based Probes for Ten-Eleven Translocation Family Enzymes.

Ten-eleven translocation (TET) enzymes catalyze repeated oxidations of 5-methylcytosine in genomic DNA. Because of the challenges of tracking reactivity within a complex DNA substrate, chemical tools to probe TET activity are limited, despite these enzyme's crucial role in epigenetic regulation. Here, building on precedents from related Fe(II)/α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases, we show that TET enzymes can promiscuously act upon cytosine bases with unnatural 5-position modifications. Oxidation of 5-vinylcytosine (vC) in DNA results in the predominant formation of a 5-formylmethylcytosine product that can be efficiently labeled to provide an end-point read-out for TET activity. The reaction with 5-ethynylcytosine (eyC), moreover, results in the formation of a high-energy ketene intermediate that can selectively trap any active TET isoform as a covalent enzyme-DNA complex, even in the complex milieu of a total cell lysate. Exploiting substrate promiscuity therefore offers a new and needed means to directly track TET activity in vitro or in vivo.

OGT binds a conserved C-terminal domain of TET1 to regulate TET1 activity and function in development.

TET enzymes convert 5-methylcytosine to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine and higher oxidized derivatives. TETs stably associate with and are post-translationally modified by the nutrient-sensing enzyme OGT, suggesting a connection between metabolism and the epigenome. Here, we show for the first time that modification by OGT enhances TET1 activity in vitro. We identify a TET1 domain that is necessary and sufficient for binding to OGT and report a point mutation that disrupts the TET1-OGT interaction. We show that this interaction is necessary for TET1 to rescue hematopoetic stem cell production in tet mutant zebrafish embryos, suggesting that OGT promotes TET1's function during development. Finally, we show that disrupting the TET1-OGT interaction in mouse embryonic stem cells changes the abundance of TET2 and 5-methylcytosine, which is accompanied by alterations in gene expression. These results link metabolism and epigenetic control, which may be relevant to the developmental and disease processes regulated by these two enzymes.

Nondestructive, base-resolution sequencing of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine using a DNA deaminase.

Here we present APOBEC-coupled epigenetic sequencing (ACE-seq), a bisulfite-free method for localizing 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) at single-base resolution with low DNA input. The method builds on the observation that AID/APOBEC family DNA deaminase enzymes can potently discriminate between cytosine modification states and exploits the non-destructive nature of enzymatic, rather than chemical, deamination. ACE-seq yielded high-confidence 5hmC profiles with at least 1,000-fold less DNA input than conventional methods. Applying ACE-seq to generate a base-resolution map of 5hmC in tissue-derived cortical excitatory neurons, we found that 5hmC was almost entirely confined to CG dinucleotides. The whole-genome map permitted cytosine, 5-methylcytosine (5mC) and 5hmC to be parsed and revealed genomic features that diverged from global patterns, including enhancers and imprinting control regions with high and low 5hmC/5mC ratios, respectively. Enzymatic deamination overcomes many challenges posed by bisulfite-based methods, thus expanding the scope of epigenome profiling to include scarce samples and opening new lines of inquiry regarding the role of cytosine modifications in genome biology.

Harnessing natural DNA modifying activities for editing of the genome and epigenome.

The introduction of site-specific DNA modifications to the genome or epigenome presents great opportunities for manipulating biological systems. Such changes are now possible through the combination of DNA-modifying enzymes with targeting modules, including dCas9, that can localize the enzymes to specific sites. In this review, we take a DNA modifying enzyme-centric view of recent advances. We highlight the variety of natural DNA-modifying enzymes-including DNA methyltransferases, oxygenases, deaminases, and glycosylases-that can be used for targeted editing and discuss how insights into the structure and function of these enzymes has further expanded editing potential by introducing enzyme variants with altered activities or by improving spatiotemporal control of modifications.

A Small-Molecule Inducible Synthetic Circuit for Control of the SOS Gene Network without DNA Damage.

The bacterial SOS stress-response pathway is a pro-mutagenic DNA repair system that mediates bacterial survival and adaptation to genotoxic stressors, including antibiotics and UV light. The SOS pathway is composed of a network of genes under the control of the transcriptional repressor, LexA. Activation of the pathway involves linked but distinct events: an initial DNA damage event leads to activation of RecA, which promotes autoproteolysis of LexA, abrogating its repressor function and leading to induction of the SOS gene network. These linked events can each independently contribute to DNA repair and mutagenesis, making it difficult to separate the contributions of the different events to observed phenotypes. We therefore devised a novel synthetic circuit to unlink these events and permit induction of the SOS gene network in the absence of DNA damage or RecA activation via orthogonal cleavage of LexA. Strains engineered with the synthetic SOS circuit demonstrate small-molecule inducible expression of SOS genes as well as the associated resistance to UV light. Exploiting our ability to activate SOS genes independently of upstream events, we further demonstrate that the majority of SOS-mediated mutagenesis on the chromosome does not readily occur with orthogonal pathway induction alone, but instead requires DNA damage. More generally, our approach provides an exemplar for using synthetic circuit design to separate an environmental stressor from its associated stress-response pathway.

Mutations along a TET2 active site scaffold stall oxidation at 5-hydroxymethylcytosine.

Ten-eleven translocation (TET) enzymes catalyze stepwise oxidation of 5-methylcytosine (mC) to yield 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (hmC) and the rarer bases 5-formylcytosine (fC) and 5-carboxylcytosine (caC). Stepwise oxidation obscures how each individual base forms and functions in epigenetic regulation, and prompts the question of whether TET enzymes primarily serve to generate hmC or are adapted to produce fC and caC as well. By mutating a single, conserved active site residue in human TET2, Thr1372, we uncovered enzyme variants that permit oxidation to hmC but largely eliminate fC and caC. Biochemical analyses, combined with molecular dynamics simulations, elucidated an active site scaffold that is required for wild-type (WT) stepwise oxidation and that, when perturbed, explains the mutants' hmC-stalling phenotype. Our results suggest that the TET2 active site is shaped to enable higher-order oxidation and provide the first TET variants that could be used to probe the biological functions of hmC separately from fC and caC.

The expanding scope and impact of epigenetic cytosine modifications.

Chemical modifications to genomic DNA can expand and shape its coding potential. Cytosine methylation in particular has well-established roles in regulating gene expression and defining cellular identity. The discovery of TET family enzymes opened a major frontier beyond DNA methylation, revealing three oxidized forms of cytosine that could mediate DNA demethylation or encode independent epigenetic functions. Chemical biology has been instrumental in uncovering TET's intricate reaction mechanisms and scope of reactivity on a surprising variety of substrates. Moreover, innovative chemoenzymatic strategies have enabled sensitive detection of oxidized cytosine products in vitro and in vivo. We highlight key recent developments that demonstrate how chemical biology is advancing our understanding of the extended, dynamic epigenome.

Tet2 Catalyzes Stepwise 5-Methylcytosine Oxidation by an Iterative and de novo Mechanism.

Modification of cytosine-guanine dinucleotides (CpGs) is a key part of mammalian epigenetic regulation and helps shape cellular identity. Tet enzymes catalyze stepwise oxidation of 5-methylcytosine (mC) in CpGs to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (hmC), or onward to 5-formylcytosine (fC) or 5-carboxylcytosine (caC). The multiple mC oxidation products, while intricately linked, are postulated to play independent epigenetic roles, making it critical to understand how the products of stepwise oxidation are established and maintained. Using highly sensitive isotope-based studies, we newly show that Tet2 can yield fC and caC by iteratively acting in a single encounter with mC-containing DNA, without release of the hmC intermediate, and that the modification state of the complementary CpG has little impact on Tet2 activity. By revealing Tet2 as an iterative, de novo mC oxygenase, our study provides insight into how features intrinsic to Tet2 shape the epigenetic landscape.

Thermal stability of rhodopsin and progression of retinitis pigmentosa: comparison of S186W and D190N rhodopsin mutants.

Over 100 point mutations in the rhodopsin gene have been associated with retinitis pigmentosa (RP), a family of inherited visual disorders. Among these, we focused on characterizing the S186W mutation. We compared the thermal properties of the S186W mutant with another RP-causing mutant, D190N, and with WT rhodopsin. To assess thermal stability, we measured the rate of two thermal reactions contributing to the thermal decay of rhodopsin as follows: thermal isomerization of 11-cis-retinal and hydrolysis of the protonated Schiff base linkage between the 11-cis-retinal chromophore and opsin protein. We used UV-visible spectroscopy and HPLC to examine the kinetics of these reactions at 37 and 55 °C for WT and mutant rhodopsin purified from HEK293 cells. Compared with WT rhodopsin and the D190N mutant, the S186W mutation dramatically increases the rates of both thermal isomerization and dark state hydrolysis of the Schiff base by 1-2 orders of magnitude. The results suggest that the S186W mutant thermally destabilizes rhodopsin by disrupting a hydrogen bond network at the receptor's active site. The decrease in the thermal stability of dark state rhodopsin is likely to be associated with higher levels of dark noise that undermine the sensitivity of rhodopsin, potentially accounting for night blindness in the early stages of RP. Further studies of the thermal stability of additional pathogenic rhodopsin mutations in conjunction with clinical studies are expected to provide insight into the molecular mechanism of RP and test the correlation between rhodopsin's thermal stability and RP progression in patients.

Chemical kinetic analysis of thermal decay of rhodopsin reveals unusual energetics of thermal isomerization and hydrolysis of Schiff base.

The thermal properties of rhodopsin, which set the threshold of our vision, have long been investigated, but the chemical kinetics of the thermal decay of rhodopsin has not been revealed in detail. To understand thermal decay quantitatively, we propose a kinetic model consisting of two pathways: 1) thermal isomerization of 11-cis-retinal followed by hydrolysis of Schiff base (SB) and 2) hydrolysis of SB in dark state rhodopsin followed by opsin-catalyzed isomerization of free 11-cis-retinal. We solve the kinetic model mathematically and use it to analyze kinetic data from four experiments that we designed to assay thermal decay, isomerization, hydrolysis of SB using dark state rhodopsin, and hydrolysis of SB using photoactivated rhodopsin. We apply the model to WT rhodopsin and E181Q and S186A mutants at 55 °C, as well as WT rhodopsin in H(2)O and D(2)O at 59 °C. The results show that the hydrogen-bonding network strongly restrains thermal isomerization but is less important in opsin and activated rhodopsin. Furthermore, the ability to obtain individual rate constants allows comparison of thermal processes under various conditions. Our kinetic model and experiments reveal two unusual energetic properties: the steep temperature dependence of the rates of thermal isomerization and SB hydrolysis in the dark state and a strong deuterium isotope effect on dark state SB hydrolysis. These findings can be applied to study pathogenic rhodopsin mutants and other visual pigments.

Thermal properties of rhodopsin: insight into the molecular mechanism of dim-light vision.

Rhodopsin has developed mechanisms to optimize its sensitivity to light by suppressing dark noise and enhancing quantum yield. We propose that an intramolecular hydrogen-bonding network formed by ∼20 water molecules, the hydrophilic residues, and peptide backbones in the transmembrane region is essential to restrain thermal isomerization, the source of dark noise. We studied the thermal stability of rhodopsin at 55 °C with single point mutations (E181Q and S186A) that perturb the hydrogen-bonding network at the active site. We found that the rate of thermal isomerization increased by 1-2 orders of magnitude in the mutants. Our results illustrate the importance of the intact hydrogen-bonding network for dim-light detection, revealing the functional roles of water molecules in rhodopsin. We also show that thermal isomerization of 11-cis-retinal in solution can be catalyzed by wild-type opsin and that this catalytic property is not affected by the mutations. We characterize the catalytic effect and propose that it is due to steric interactions in the retinal-binding site and increases quantum yield by predetermining the trajectory of photoisomerization. Thus, our studies reveal a balancing act between dark noise and quantum yield, which have opposite effects on the thermal isomerization rate. The acquisition of the hydrogen-bonding network and the tuning of the steric interactions at the retinal-binding site are two important factors in the development of dim-light vision.

Thermal decay of rhodopsin: role of hydrogen bonds in thermal isomerization of 11-cis retinal in the binding site and hydrolysis of protonated Schiff base.

Although thermal stability of the G protein-coupled receptor rhodopsin is directly related to its extremely low dark noise level and has recently generated considerable interest, the chemistry behind the thermal decay process of rhodopsin has remained unclear. Using UV-vis spectroscopy and HPLC analysis, we have demonstrated that the thermal decay of rhodopsin involves both hydrolysis of the protonated Schiff base and thermal isomerization of 11-cis to all-trans retinal. Examining the unfolding of rhodopsin by circular dichroism spectroscopy and measuring the rate of thermal isomerization of 11-cis retinal in solution, we conclude that the observed thermal isomerization of 11-cis to all-trans retinal happens when 11-cis retinal is in the binding pocket of rhodopsin. Furthermore, we demonstrate that solvent deuterium isotope effects are involved in the thermal decay process by decreasing the rates of thermal isomerization and hydrolysis, suggesting that the rate-determining step of these processes involves breaking hydrogen bonds. These results provide insight into understanding the critical role of an extensive hydrogen-bonding network on stabilizing the inactive state of rhodopsin and contribute to our current understanding of the low dark noise level of rhodopsin, which enables this specialized protein to function as an extremely sensitive biological light detector. Because similar hydrogen-bonding networks have also been suggested by structural analysis of two other GPCRs, beta1 and beta2 adrenergic receptors, our results could reveal a general role of hydrogen bonds in facilitating GPCR function.