Predicting value for incomplete recovery in Bell's palsy of facial nerve ultrasound versus nerve conduction study.

OBJECTIVE: This longitudinal study aims at assessing the predictive value of facial nerve high-resolution ultrasound (HRUS) for incomplete clinical recovery in patients with Bell's palsy, the most common facial nerve disease. METHODS: We prospectively enrolled 34 consecutive patients with Bell's palsy. All patients underwent neurophysiological testing (including facial nerve conduction study) and HRUS evaluations 10-15 days (T1), one month (T2), and three months (T3) after the onset of Bell's palsy. Patients who did not experience complete recovery within three months were also evaluated after six months (T4). We have then compared the accuracy of HRUS with that of the facial nerve conduction study in predicting incomplete clinical recovery at three and six months. RESULTS: At T1, the facial nerve diameter, as assessed with HRUS, was larger on the affected side than on the normal side, particularly in patients with incomplete recovery at T2, T3 and T4. ROC curve analysis, however, showed that the facial nerve diameter at T1 had a lower predictive value than the facial nerve conduction study for an incomplete clinical recovery at three (T3) and six (T4) months. Still, the facial nerve diameter asymmetry, as assessed with HRUS, had a relatively high negative predictive value (thus indicating a strong association between normal HRUS examination and a good prognosis). CONCLUSIONS: Although HRUS shows abnormally increased facial nerve diameter in patients in the acute phase of Bell's palsy, the predictive value of this technique for incomplete clinical recovery at three and six months is lower than that of the nerve conduction study. SIGNIFICANCE: Nerve ultrasound has a low predictive value for incomplete clinical recovery in patients with Bell's Palsy.

The role of the Sapienza GLObal Bedside Evaluation of Swallowing after Stroke (GLOBE-3S) in the prevention of stroke-associated pneumonia (SAP).

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Stroke-associated pneumonia (SAP) affects 10 to 38% of patients in the acute phase of stroke. Stroke patients diagnosed with dysphagia have an 11-fold higher risk of developing SAP. Thus, identifying dysphagic patients through a highly accurate screening tool might be crucial in reducing the incidence of SAP. We present a case-control study designed to evaluate efficacy in reducing the risk of SAP between two swallowing screening tools, the classic water swallow test (WST) and a recently validated tool such as the GLOBE-3S (the Sapienza GLObal Bedside Evaluation of Swallowing after Stroke), which is a highly sensitive swallowing screening tool particularly accurate in detecting silent aspiration as well. METHODS: We analyzed the occurrence of dysphagia in 100 acute stroke patients distributed in two groups: half were screened with WST and the other half with GLOBE-3S. RESULTS: Dysphagia was diagnosed in 28 patients. The main result is that, among patients who passed the dysphagia screenings, none of those screened with the GLOBE-3S method developed pneumonia compared to 31.82% in the WST group. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) showed that NIH Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score and the dysphagia screening method (i.e., GLOBE-3S vs. WST) were the two main factors in the SAP's predicting model and the only significant ones per se. CONCLUSIONS: The new GLOBE-3S screening test can reduce the risk of SAP compared to WST.

Sapienza Global Bedside Evaluation of Swallowing after Stroke: the GLOBE-3S study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Dysphagia occurs in up to 50% of all patients with acute stroke. There is debate regarding which is the most effective screening tool in identifying aspiration in patients with acute stroke. We assessed the accuracy of the Sapienza Global Bedside Evaluation of Swallowing after Stroke (GLOBE-3S), which combines the Toronto Bedside Swallowing Screening Test (TOR-BSST©) with oxygen desaturation and laryngeal elevation measurement during swallowing. METHODS: We prospectively enrolled consecutive patients with stroke within 72 h of symptom onset. All patients with stroke firstly underwent a standard neurological examination, then the GLOBE-3S evaluation and finally the fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing (FEES). Two different assessors, a neurologist and a speech pathologist, blind to both the clinical data and each other's evaluation, administered the GLOBE-3S and FEES examination. We assessed the accuracy of the GLOBE-3S in detecting post-stroke swallow impairment with aspiration using the FEES as the standard. RESULTS: We enrolled 50 patients with acute stroke, 28 of whom (56%) had swallowing impairment with aspiration at FEES evaluation. A total of 33 patients (66%) failed the GLOBE-3S evaluation. The GLOBE-3S reached a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 77.3% (negative predictive value, 100%; positive likelihood ratio, 4.34). The median time required for the GLOBE-3S to be performed was 297 s. CONCLUSIONS: GLOBE-3S is quick to perform at the bedside and can accurately identify aspiration in patients with acute stroke. By including the measurement of laryngeal elevation and monitoring of oxygen desaturation, it could represent a highly sensitive instrument to avoid the misdiagnosis of silent aspirators.

Optic Nerve Sheath Diameter Ultrasound Evaluation in Intensive Care Unit: Possible Role and Clinical Aspects in Neurological Critical Patients' Daily Monitoring.

Background. The increase of the optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) is a reliable, noninvasive sonographic marker of intracranial hypertension. Aim of the study was to demonstrate the efficacy of ONSD evaluation, when monitoring neurocritical patients, to early identify malignant intracranial hypertension in patients with brain death (BD). Methods. Data from ultrasound ONSD evaluation have been retrospectively analyzed in 21 sedated critical patients with neurological diseases who, during their clinical course, developed BD. 31 nonneurological controls were used for standard ONSD reference. Results. Patients with neurological diseases, before BD, showed higher ONSD values than control group (CTRL: RT 0.45 ± 0.03 cm; LT 0.45 ± 0.02 cm; pre-BD: RT 0.54 ± 0.02 cm; LT 0.55 ± 0.02 cm; p < 0.000) even without intracranial hypertension, evaluated with invasive monitoring. ONSD was further significantly markedly increased in respect to the pre-BD evaluation in neurocritical patients after BD, with mean values above 0.7 cm (RT 0.7 ± 0.02 cm; LT 0.71 ± 0.02 cm; p < 0.000), with a corresponding dramatic raise in intracranial pressure. Logistic regression analysis showed a strong correlation between ONSD and ICP (R 0,895, p < 0.001). Conclusions. ONSD is a reliable marker of intracranial hypertension, easy to be performed with a minimal training. Routine ONSD daily monitoring could be of help in Intensive Care Units when invasive intracranial pressure monitoring is not available, to early recognize intracranial hypertension and to suspect BD in neurocritical patients.

Cerebral venous hemodynamic abnormalities in episodic and chronic migraine.

Alterations of cerebral venous drainage have been demonstrated in chronic migraine (CM), suggesting that cerebral venous hemodynamic abnormalities (CVHAs) play a role in this condition. The aim of the present study was to look for a correlation between CM and CVHAs. We recruited 33 subjects suffering from CM with or without analgesic overuse, 29 episodic migraine (EM) patients with or without aura, and 21 healthy subjects as controls (HCs). CVHAs were evaluated by transcranial and extracranial echo-color Doppler evaluation of five venous hemodynamic parameters. CVHAs were significantly more frequent in the CM and EM patients than in the HCs. In the migraine patients, CVHAs were not correlated with clinical features. The significantly greater frequency of CVHAs observed in the migraineurs may reflect a possible relationship between migraine and these abnormalities. Prospective longitudinal studies are needed to investigate whether CVHAs have a role in the processes of migraine chronification.

Predictors and timing of recanalization in intracranial carotid artery and siphon dissection: an ultrasound follow-up study.

BACKGROUND: Intra- and extracranial internal carotid artery dissections (ICD) are two different pathological conditions. Extracranial dissection is considered to be among the most frequent causes of stroke in the young and the segment generally reopens in 2 out of 3 cases, completely or partially, within 6 months. Intracranial ICD (IICD) is considered a rare occurrence in stroke and, accordingly, there are few systematic published data. However, it is a clinically significant condition that may cause severely disabling ischemic stroke or subarachnoid hemorrhage. In the past, sole availability of invasive imaging methods for its detection may have induced an underreporting. The aim of the study was to analyze ultrasound findings, timing and predictors of recanalization in patients with IICD. METHODS: IICD acute patients admitted to our Stroke Unit were submitted to carotid sonographic seriated monitoring, daily for the 1st week after symptom onset, at day 14, at month 1 and every 3 months thereafter up to a follow-up of 4 years. Contrast carotid ultrasound was performed in patients with persistent occlusion after month 1. RESULTS: Fourteen acute patients with IICD were enrolled. Extracranial internal carotid patency was observed in 8 patients at first ultrasound scans; all of these showed complete intracranial recanalization within the 1st week and oral anticoagulants were withdrawn after 6 months. Conversely, in 6 patients retrograde extracranial internal carotid thrombosis was immediately observed, since the first ultrasound scans. In 4 of these the occlusion persisted after 4 years while 2 of them had only a partial recanalization, with evidence at contrast ultrasound of still late remodeling processes in the extracranial thrombus up to 2 years after the first observation; for this reason, in these 2 patients anticoagulation was not discontinued, while in the 4 patients with persistent, stable, occlusion, therapy was suspended 1 year after the diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Identification of the site of dissection - i.e. extra- versus intracranial - is fundamental in clinical studies for outcome and prognosis evaluation. Carotid ultrasound strict surveillance is important to monitor eventual recanalization in patients with ICD, even in a late phase. Retrograde internal carotid thrombosis seems to be correlated with persistent occlusion and partial recanalization. Remodeling of thrombotic material in the internal carotid artery may, however, continue for up to 2 years. In these cases, contrast ultrasound evidence of thrombus morphological changes may support the decision to continue anticoagulation.

Current practice of brain death determination and use of confirmatory tests in an Italian University hospital: a report of 66 cases.

BACKGROUND: Time to final brain death (BD) determination is fundamental to rapidly identify donors without organ deterioration. Guidelines for BD determination are different from country to country and, through years, they have been subjected to several revisions, to simplify the procedure. The aim of this study was to describe a one-year experience according to the latest Italian Guidelines for BD in our University hospital and to focus on timing of final BD declaration according to the ancillary tests executed. METHODS: Sixty-six consecutive inpatients with BD diagnosis were enrolled. Etiological factors, ancillary tests and timing to final declaration were analyzed. RESULTS: Electroencephalogram (EEG) could be performed without artifacts in all the patients. Time to BD procedure starting depended on whether the demonstration of cerebral circulatory arrest was required, being shorter with EEG only (40±17 min), longer with cerebral blood flow evaluation (175±95 min), minimal with transcranial Doppler (83±32 min), maximal with angiography (165±20 min). None of the patients who initiated BD procedure were found to recover cerebral or brainstem function at the second observation. CONCLUSIONS: In Italy, the same guidelines ensure the same approach in every hospital, with multi-specialist cooperation. The EEG is mandatory and prompt recognition of the first, flat EEG is fundamental to reduce time to the final procedure. A multimodal neurophysiological approach with trained specialists, neurosonologists and monitoring devices in intensive care units may represents a valid help to further reduce time for BD diagnosis.

Effects of a single mannitol bolus on cerebral hemodynamics in intracerebral hemorrhage: a transcranial Doppler study.

BACKGROUND: Mannitol infusion is widely used in clinical practice to reduce perilesional edema in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), though no controlled studies have yet provided evidence of its effects on clinical outcome or on cerebral blood flow impairment following the event. The aim of our study was to evaluate blood flow velocity changes in the middle cerebral arteries (MCA) after a mannitol bolus in patients with ICH. METHODS: Transcranial Doppler bilateral monitoring was performed for 90 min in 20 patients with ICH, during 100 ml mannitol bolus i.v. administration. The MCA mean flow velocities (MFVs) and pulsatility index (PI) were recorded. RESULTS: When the 'healthy' and the 'affected' hemispheres were compared, we observed higher MCA MFV and lower PI on the affected side than on the contralateral side, both at baseline and during the experiment. After the mannitol bolus, we observed a significant MFV increase, starting at the end of the infusion and lasting longer than 60 min in the MCA on the affected side alone. The PI increased after mannitol administration on the healthy side alone. CONCLUSIONS: A single bolus of mannitol modified cerebral hemodynamics in our patients with ICH, increasing flow velocities on the affected MCA. This effect may be a consequence of reduced edema in the perilesional areas. The increased PI on the unaffected side may be indicative of preserved pulsatility in the healthy hemisphere.

Advantages and pitfalls of three-dimensional ultrasound imaging of carotid bifurcation.

OBJECTIVES: Several specialists use three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound as adjuvant imaging technique in their clinical practice. It has been applied to study carotid plaque morphology, surface and volume during atherosclerosis progression. Nonetheless, no papers have so far described the use of this technique in conditions different than carotid stenosis, such as bifurcation anatomy changes of the caliber and vessel course modifications. METHODS: Patients admitted to our ultrasound laboratory for vascular screening were submitted to standard carotid duplex and to 3D ultrasound reconstruction of the carotid bifurcation. RESULTS: Forty normal subjects, 7 patients with caliber alterations (4 carotid bulb ectasia and 3 internal carotid lumen narrowing), 45 patients with course variations (tortuosities and kinking) and 35 patients with internal carotid artery stenosis of various degrees have been investigated. CONCLUSIONS: 3D ultrasound is a feasible technique. It can improve carotid axis imaging through a better presentation of caliber variations and vessel course 'at a glance'. 3D ultrasound from the inward flow can provide imaging of the stenosis, but stenosis quantification should always take into account the assessment of plaque morphology and vessel wall.

Reversible encephalopathy induced by cefoperazone: a case report monitored with EEG.

In patients with an impaired state of consciousness, EEG is fundamental, a correct neurological work-up. Cephalosporins have been identified as a case of triphasic waves' (TW) reversible encephalopathy. We report a case of an acute reversible encephalopathy with TWs during treatment with cefoperazone. We report the occurrence and regression of a confusional state with TWs encephalopathy at EEG after the administration of cefoperazone for urinary tract infection in a patient admitted for syncope. In conclusion, cefoperazone should be considered as a cause of toxic encephalopathy with EEG TWs, when there is a temporal relationship with its administration; EEG monitoring is useful in the neurological follow-up.

EEG patterns and epileptic seizures in acute phase stroke.

BACKGROUND: The rate of early post-stroke epileptic seizures ranges from 2 to 33%. This wide range is likely due to differences in study design, patient selection and type of neurophysiological monitoring. Electroencephalography (EEG), which is not used in the routine work-up of acute stroke, is the best neurodiagnostic technique for detecting epileptic activity, especially in patients with non-convulsive post-stroke epileptic activity. The aim of this study was to analyze patterns on EEGs performed within 24 h of stroke onset, and to investigate correlations between these patterns and the occurrence of early epileptic seizures and status epilepticus (SE), vascular risk factors, stroke subtypes and short-term outcome. METHODS: We prospectively studied 232 patients (mean age 71 ± 12 years; 177 ischemic strokes and 55 hemorrhagic). EEG recording was performed within 24 h from hospitalization. The follow-up lasted 1 week. RESULTS: Fifteen patients (6.5%) had early seizures within 24 h; 10 of these patients had focal SE with or without secondary generalization. EEG revealed sporadic epileptiform focal abnormalities in 10% and periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges (PLEDs) in 6%. SE was recorded in 71.4% of patients with PLEDs. At the multivariate analysis, only early epileptic manifestations (p < 0.001) were independently associated with PLEDs. CONCLUSIONS: Our study confirms that seizures are not frequent in the early phase of acute stroke and occur prevalently as focal SE at onset. EEG may help to detect specific patterns, such as PLEDs, that are closely related to early seizures. EEG monitoring should be performed in order to detect purely electrographic seizures.

Transcranial Doppler for brain death in infants: the role of the fontanelles.

OBJECTIVE: Transcranial Doppler (TCD) is a sensitive technique for circulatory arrest diagnosis in brain death when patterns such as reverberant flow and short systolic spikes are observed. In infants, the nonossified fontanelles compensate for intracranial hypertension. We describe TCD patterns in infants with brain death, different from adults, with the hemodynamic modifications induced by anterior fontanelle compression. METHOD: TCD was performed in 2 infants with diagnosed brain death admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit. RESULTS: TCD showed a large peak 'reverberant' flow, with a high peak systolic velocity and a consistent retrograde component, away from the brain. Compression of the anterior fontanelle induced, at first, a reduction in systolic flow with the subsequent appearance of the characteristic short systolic spikes. Upon compression removal, a brief increase in the systolic flow was observed before the prompt reappearance of the reverberant flow. CONCLUSION: TCD for brain death diagnosis should be done cautiously in infants. In these cases, reverberating flow may be indicative of circulatory arrest even if with a large peak and with a high peak systolic velocity. Heavy fontanelle compression may reproduce the classical adult TCD patterns of brain death, thus supporting the diagnosis of cerebral circulatory arrest.

Long-term effects of a sensitisation campaign on migraine: the Casilino study.

In 2003, we conducted a sensitisation campaign on migraine in the Casilino district of Rome, by sending a letter with the ID Migraine test to all the households and placing posters in the GPs' waiting room. Out of 195 headache patients recruited, 92% had migraine while 73% had never consulted a physician for headache. The aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term impact of this campaign. The follow-up was performed by a telephone interview. The questionnaire considered the characteristics of headache, quality of life, preventive and acute treatments, drug efficacy, comorbidity and subjective usefulness of the campaign. Of the 179 migraineurs, 90.5% (mean age 40.7 +/- 16.5, 139 females) were included in the follow-up. An improvement was observed in mean pain intensity (-13.9%; p < 0.0001) and mean HIT-6 score (-6.1%; p = 0.0003). The campaign was considered to be useful by 63.6% of cases, while 66.1% reported an improvement in their clinical status. Improved patients showed a decreased mean number of days with headache per month (-51.7%; p < 0.0001), pain intensity (-21.8%; p < 0.0001), headache duration (-18.1%; p = 0.0008)and HIT-6 score (-11.7%; p < 0.0001). Our data suggest that the effects of a "single shot" campaign are beneficial not only in a short-term perspective, but even in the longterm. Moreover, the lack of benefit in more severe cases suggests that such patients should not be treated by GPs alone: patients in whom the HIT-6 score, frequency,severity or duration of headache worsen should be promptly referred to the headache clinic.

Contrast carotid ultrasound for the detection of unstable plaques with neoangiogenesis: a pilot study.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate whether contrast ultrasonography can be used to distinguish asymptomatic from symptomatic carotid plaques and provide insight into underlying pathophysiological differences. DESIGN: Contrast carotid ultrasound was performed in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients referred for carotid endarterectomy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Of 77 consecutive patients referred for carotid artery evaluation, 64 underwent carotid endarterectomy for asymptomatic cerebrovascular disease and 9 underwent urgent surgery for acute neurological deficits with hemiparesis. The endarterectomy specimens were assessed immunohistologically. RESULTS: In all 9 patients undergoing urgent surgery, contrast ultrasonography showed the accumulation of diffuse microbubble contrast at the base of the carotid plaque. This pattern was observed only in 1/64 of the patients undergoing surgery for asymptomatic carotid disease. Immunohistologically staining of the endarterectomy specimens showed that the area of microbubble contrast at the base of the symptomatic plaques was associated with an increased number of small diameter (20-30 microm) microvessels staining for vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). CONCLUSIONS: Contrast carotid ultrasonography may allow the identification of microvessels with neoangiogenesis at the base of carotid plaques, and differentiate symptomatic from asymptomatic plaques.

Combined pharmacological and short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy for probable medication overuse headache: a pilot study.

We studied the effects of short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy (STPP) and pharmacological therapy in 26 consecutive patients with probable medication overuse headache (pMOH). Patients underwent a standard in-patient detoxification protocol, lasting a mean of 7 days. Eleven patients overused non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), five a combination of NSAIDs and triptans, four triptans, four a combination of NSAIDs, and three triptans and ergot derivates. Preventive therapy was initiated during detoxification. The STPP protocol comprised the Brief Psychodynamic Investigation (BPI) and psychoanalysis-inspired psychotherapy. All patients (groups A and B) underwent the BPI and pharmacological therapy. Half of the patients (group B) also not randomly underwent psychoanalysis-inspired psychotherapy. We found a significant interaction between time and group for headache frequency and medication intake. At 12-month follow-up, a statistically greater decrease in headache frequency and medication intake was observed in group B than in group A (P = 0.0108 and P = 0.0097, respectively). The relapse rate was much lower in group B patients at both 6 and 12 months [15.3%, odds ratio (OR) 0.11, P = 0.016, and 23%, OR 0.18, P = 0.047, respectively] than in group A. The risk of developing chronic migraine (CM) during follow-up was higher in group A than in group B at 6 (OR 2.0, P = 0.047) and 12 months (OR 2.75, P = 0.005). Our study suggests that STPP in conjunction with drug withdrawal and prophylactic pharmacotherapy relieves headache symptoms in pMOH, reducing both long-term relapses and the burden of CM.

Combined transcranial Doppler and EEG recording in vasovagal syncope.

BACKGROUND: In neurally mediated syncope a 'typical' EEG pattern during hyperventilation (HV) may be observed. This study aimed to investigate transcranial Doppler (TCD) and EEG variations in response to hyper- and hypocapnia using simultaneous recording. METHODS: Syncope patients with a typical EEG pattern during HV (SEEG+, n = 15) and those without abnormalities (SEEG-, n = 16) were compared with healthy controls (n = 20). Simultaneous TCD and EEG recordings were performed at rest (baseline), during 2 apnea tests and during HV. Cerebrovascular vasoreactivity, index for hypocapnia, total vasomotor reserve and time to flow velocity normalization after HV (t-norm) were recorded. RESULTS: With TCD, a reduction in Vasomotor reserve was observed in SEEG+ compared with the other 2 groups (control: 67 +/- 8%; SEEG-: 67 +/- 10%; SEEG+: 57 +/- 8%; p < 0.0001). t-norm was longer in all syncopal patients and in particular in SEEG+ (control: 20.2 +/- 3 s; SEEG-: 40 +/- 7 s; SEEG+: 123 +/- 45s; p < 0.0001). Quantitative EEG showed an increase in slow bands in all subjects during HV, small and nonsignificant in controls and SEEG-, higher and significant in SEEG+, related with flow reduction. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in the sympathetic modulation of cerebral vasoconstriction may explain both the pathophysiology of vasovagal syncope and the typical paroxysmal EEG findings.

Delayed poststroke dementia: a 4-year follow-up study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess patients who have had a stroke for the subsequent development of poststroke dementia (PSD) and to determine if the characteristics of delayed PSD (dPSD) vary in the long-term follow-up. METHODS: Nondemented patients were followed from 6 months after stroke onset for 4 years. Dementia was diagnosed by International Classification of Diseases-10 criteria; dementia etiology was diagnosed by the National Institute of Neurological and Communication Disorders and Stroke/Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders Association and National Institute of Neurologic Disorders and Stroke/Association Internationale pour la Recherche et l'Enseignement en Neurosciences criteria. Neuroimaging and neuropsychological tests were repeated annually. RESULTS: During a 2-year period, 191 stroke patients were enrolled. By the end of the follow-up period, 41 (21.5%) patients had developed dementia. At the Cox regression analysis, dPSD was associated with cortical atrophy (hazard ratio [HR] = 3.4, 95% CI 1.5 to 7.9), age (HR = 3.3, 95% CI 1.4 to 7.8), and multiple ischemic lesions (HR = 2.5, 95% CI 1.2 to 4.8). The Kaplan-Meier analysis showed a significant difference between the incidence of dPSD subtypes (log-rank test; p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: During the 4-year follow-up, the incidence of dementia increased gradually, shifting from an Alzheimer disease-type picture in the first years to a vascular dementia type later in years 2 to 4.

Observations on EEG patterns in neurally-mediated syncope: an inspective and quantitative study.

We performed an observational EEG study in 43 patients with neurally-mediated syncope in basal condition and during hyperventilation (HV), and compared it with 32 healthy controls. On blind analysis at rest, EEG was classified as normal in 47% of patients (vs. 94% of controls, P < 0.001). More abundant and pronounced delta-theta activities and alpha slowing were found in patients than in control subjects on both visual inspection and quantitative spectral analysis. During prolonged HV, the EEG remained normal in 21% of patients only. Slow activities became more evident in patients than in control subjects, and intermittent rhythmic delta activity appeared in 40% of syncopal patients. These "pseudoparoxysmal" EEG changes differed from the common slowings induced by HV in adult subjects and were not observed in our control subjects. Moreover, these distinctive EEG changes, a common finding in syncopal patients, could not be confused with epileptiform activity of any kind. Further studies will clarify the pathophysiology of these EEG modifications.