A tale of two blooms: do ecological paradigms for algal bloom success and succession require revisiting?

Lake Erie algal bloom discussions have historically focused on cyanobacteria, with foundational "blooms like it hot" and "high nutrient" paradigms considered as primary drivers behind cyanobacterial bloom success. Yet, recent surveys have rediscovered winter-spring diatom blooms, introducing another key player in the Lake Erie eutrophication and algal bloom story which has been historically overlooked. These blooms (summer vs. winter) have been treated as solitary events separated by spatial and temporal gradients. However, new evidence suggests they may not be so isolated, linked in a manner that manifests as an algal bloom cycle. Equally notable are the emerging reports of cyanobacterial blooms in cold and/or oligotrophic freshwaters, which have been interpreted by some as shifts in classical bloom paradigms. These emerging bloom reports have led many to ask "what is a bloom?". Furthermore, questioning classic paradigms has caused others to wonder if we are overlooking additional factors which constrain bloom success. In light of emerging data and ideas, we revisited foundational concepts within the context of Lake Erie algal blooms and derived five key take-aways: 1) Additional bloom-formers (diatoms) need to be included in Lake Erie algal discussions, 2) The term "bloom" must be reinforced with a clear definition and quantitative metrics for each event, 3) Algal blooms should not be studied solitarily, 4) Shifts in physiochemical conditions serve as an alternative interpretation to potential shifts in ecological paradigms, 5) Additional factors which constrain bloom success and succession (i.e., pH and light) require consideration.

Metatranscriptomic analysis reveals dissimilarity in viral community activity between an ice-free and ice-covered winter in Lake Erie.

Winter is a relatively under-studied season in freshwater ecology. The paucity of wintertime surveys has led to a lack of knowledge regarding microbial community activity during the winter in Lake Erie, a North American Great Lake. Viruses shape microbial communities and regulate biogeochemical cycles by acting as top-down controls, yet very few efforts have been made to examine active virus populations during the winter in Lake Erie. Furthermore, climate change-driven declines in seasonal ice cover have been shown to influence microbial community structure, but no studies have compared viral community activity between different ice cover conditions. We surveyed surface water metatranscriptomes for viral hallmark genes as a proxy for active virus populations and compared activity metrics between ice-covered and ice-free conditions from two sampled winters. Transcriptionally active viral communities were detected in both winters, spanning diverse phylogenetic clades of putative bacteriophage (Caudoviricetes), giant viruses (Nucleocytoviricota, or NCLDV), and RNA viruses (Orthornavirae). However, viral community activity metrics revealed pronounced differences between the ice-covered and ice-free winters. Viral community composition was distinct between winters and viral hallmark gene richness was reduced in the ice-covered relative to the ice-free conditions. In addition, the observed differences in viral communities correlated with microbial community activity metrics. Overall, these findings contribute to our understanding of the viral populations that are active during the winter in Lake Erie and suggest that viral community activity may be associated with ice cover extent.IMPORTANCEAs seasonal ice cover is projected to become increasingly rare on large temperate lakes, there is a need to understand how microbial communities might respond to changing ice conditions. Although it is widely recognized that viruses impact microbial community structure and function, there is little known regarding wintertime viral activity or the relationship between viral activity and ice cover extent. Our metatranscriptomic analyses indicated that viruses were transcriptionally active in the winter surface waters of Lake Erie. These findings also expanded the known diversity of viral lineages in the Great Lakes. Notably, viral community activity metrics were significantly different between the two sampled winters. The pronounced differences we observed in active viral communities between the ice-covered and ice-free samples merit further research regarding how viral communities will function in future, potentially ice-free, freshwater systems.

Aureococcus anophagefferens strain CCMP1851: draft genome of a second Kratosvirus quantuckense-susceptible host strain for an emerging host-giant virus model system.

Here, we report the draft genome of Aureococcus anophagefferens strain CCMP1851, which is susceptible to the virus Kratosvirus quantuckense. CCMP1851 complements an available genome for a virus-resistant strain (CCMP1850) isolated from the same bloom. Future studies can now use this genome to examine genetic hints of virus resistance and susceptibility.

Declines in ice cover are accompanied by light limitation responses and community change in freshwater diatoms.

The rediscovery of diatom blooms embedded within and beneath the Lake Erie ice cover (2007-2012) ignited interest in psychrophilic adaptations and winter limnology. Subsequent studies determined the vital role ice plays in winter diatom ecophysiology as diatoms partition to the underside of ice, thereby fixing their location within the photic zone. Yet, climate change has led to widespread ice decline across the Great Lakes, with Lake Erie presenting a nearly "ice-free" state in several recent winters. It has been hypothesized that the resultant turbid, isothermal water column induces light limitation amongst winter diatoms and thus serves as a competitive disadvantage. To investigate this hypothesis, we conducted a physiochemical and metatranscriptomic survey that spanned spatial, temporal, and climatic gradients of the winter Lake Erie water column (2019-2020). Our results suggest that ice-free conditions decreased planktonic diatom bloom magnitude and altered diatom community composition. Diatoms increased their expression of various photosynthetic genes and iron transporters, which suggests that the diatoms are attempting to increase their quantity of photosystems and light-harvesting components (a well-defined indicator of light limitation). We identified two gene families which serve to increase diatom fitness in the turbid ice-free water column: proton-pumping rhodopsins (a potential second means of light-driven energy acquisition) and fasciclins (a means to "raft" together to increase buoyancy and co-locate to the surface to optimize light acquisition). With large-scale climatic changes already underway, our observations provide insight into how diatoms respond to the dynamic ice conditions of today and shed light on how they will fare in a climatically altered tomorrow.

Kratosvirus quantuckense: the history and novelty of an algal bloom disrupting virus and a model for giant virus research.

Since the discovery of the first "giant virus," particular attention has been paid toward isolating and culturing these large DNA viruses through Acanthamoeba spp. bait systems. While this method has allowed for the discovery of plenty novel viruses in the Nucleocytoviricota, environmental -omics-based analyses have shown that there is a wealth of diversity among this phylum, particularly in marine datasets. The prevalence of these viruses in metatranscriptomes points toward their ecological importance in nutrient turnover in our oceans and as such, in depth study into non-amoebal Nucleocytoviricota should be considered a focal point in viral ecology. In this review, we report on Kratosvirus quantuckense (née Aureococcus anophagefferens Virus), an algae-infecting virus of the Imitervirales. Current systems for study in the Nucleocytoviricota differ significantly from this virus and its relatives, and a litany of trade-offs within physiology, coding potential, and ecology compared to these other viruses reveal the importance of K. quantuckense. Herein, we review the research that has been performed on this virus as well as its potential as a model system for algal-virus interactions.

Effects of iron concentration and DFB (Desferrioxamine-B) on transcriptional profiles of an ecologically relevant marine bacterium.

Research into marine iron cycles and biogeochemistry has commonly relied on the use of chelators (including siderophores) to manipulate iron bioavailability. To test whether a commonly used chelator, desferrioxamine B (DFB) caused effects beyond changing the iron-status of cells, cultures of the environmentally relevant marine heterotrophic bacterium, Ruegeria pomeroyii, were grown in media with different concentrations of iron and/or DFB, resulting in a gradient of iron availability. To determine how cells responded, transcriptomes were generated for cells from the different treatments and analyzed to determine how cells reacted to these to perturbations. Analyses were also performed to look for cellular responses specific to the presence of DFB in the culture medium. As expected, cells experiencing different levels of iron availability had different transcriptomic profiles. While many genes related to iron acquisition were differentially expressed between treatments, there were many other genes that were also differentially expressed between different sample types, including those related to the uptake and metabolism of other metals as well as genes related to metabolism of other types of molecules like amino acids and carbohydrates. We conclude that while DFB certainly altered iron availability to cells, it also appears to have had a general effect on the homeostasis of other metals as well as influenced metabolic processes outside of metal acquisition.

Microcystin aids in cold temperature acclimation: Differences between a toxic Microcystis wildtype and non-toxic mutant.

For Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806, temperature decreases from 26 °C to 19 °C double the microcystin quota per cell during growth in continuous culture. Here we tested whether this increase in microcystin provided M. aeruginosa PCC 7806 with a fitness advantage during colder-temperature growth by comparing cell concentration, cellular physiology, reactive oxygen species damage, and the transcriptomics-inferred metabolism to a non-toxigenic mutant strain M. aeruginosa PCC 7806 ΔmcyB. Photo-physiological data combined with transcriptomic data revealed metabolic changes in the mutant strain during growth at 19 °C, which included increased electron sinks and non-photochemical quenching. Increased gene expression was observed for a glutathione-dependent peroxiredoxin during cold treatment, suggesting compensatory mechanisms to defend against reactive oxygen species are employed in the absence of microcystin in the mutant. Our observations highlight the potential selective advantages of a longer-term defensive strategy in management of oxidative stress (i.e., making microcystin) vs the shorter-term proactive strategy of producing cellular components to actively dissipate or degrade oxidative stress agents.

Closed circular genome sequence of a Microcystis aeruginosa PCC7806 ΔmcyB (UTK) non-toxic mutant.

Here we report the complete, closed genome of the non-toxic Microcystis aeruginosa PCC7806 ΔmcyB mutant strain. This genome is 5,103,923 bp long, with a GC content of 42.07%. Compared to the published wild-type genome (Microcystis aeruginosa PCC7806SL), there is evidence of accumulated mutations beyond the inserted chloramphenicol resistance marker.

Cool temperature acclimation in toxigenic Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806 and its non-toxigenic mutant.

For Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806, temperature decreases from 26° C to 19° C double the microcystin quota per cell during growth in continuous culture. Here we tested whether this increase in microcystin provided M. aeruginosa PCC 7806 with a fitness advantage during colder-temperature growth by comparing cell concentration, cellular physiology, and the transcriptomics-inferred metabolism to a non-toxigenic mutant strain M. aeruginosa PCC 7806 ΔmcyB. Photo-physiological data combined with transcriptomic data revealed metabolic changes in the mutant strain during growth at 19° C, which included increased electron sinks and non-photochemical quenching. Increased gene expression was observed for a glutathione-dependent peroxiredoxin during cold treatment, suggesting compensatory mechanisms to defend against reactive oxygen species are employed in the absence of microcystin in the mutant. Our observations highlight the potential selective advantages of a longer-term defensive strategy in management of oxidative stress (i.e., making microcystin) vs the shorter-term proactive strategy of producing cellular components to actively dissipate or degrade oxidative stress agents.

Viral infections likely mediate microbial controls on ecosystem responses to global warming.

Climate change is affecting how energy and matter flow through ecosystems, thereby altering global carbon and nutrient cycles. Microorganisms play a fundamental role in carbon and nutrient cycling and are thus an integral link between ecosystems and climate. Here, we highlight a major black box hindering our ability to anticipate ecosystem climate responses: viral infections within complex microbial food webs. We show how understanding and predicting ecosystem responses to warming could be challenging-if not impossible-without accounting for the direct and indirect effects of viral infections on different microbes (bacteria, archaea, fungi, protists) that together perform diverse ecosystem functions. Importantly, understanding how rising temperatures associated with climate change influence viruses and virus-host dynamics is crucial to this task, yet is severely understudied. In this perspective, we (i) synthesize existing knowledge about virus-microbe-temperature interactions and (ii) identify important gaps to guide future investigations regarding how climate change might alter microbial food web effects on ecosystem functioning. To provide real-world context, we consider how these processes may operate in peatlands-globally significant carbon sinks that are threatened by climate change. We stress that understanding how warming affects biogeochemical cycles in any ecosystem hinges on disentangling complex interactions and temperature responses within microbial food webs.

Giant Virus Infection Signatures Are Modulated by Euphotic Zone Depth Strata and Iron Regimes of the Subantarctic Southern Ocean.

Viruses can alter the abundance, evolution, and metabolism of microorganisms in the ocean, playing a key role in water column biogeochemistry and global carbon cycles. Large efforts to measure the contribution of eukaryotic microorganisms (e.g., protists) to the marine food web have been made, yet the in situ activities of the ecologically relevant viruses that infect these organisms are not well characterized. Viruses within the phylum Nucleocytoviricota ("giant viruses") are known to infect a diverse range of ecologically relevant marine protists, yet how these viruses are influenced by environmental conditions remains under-characterized. By employing metatranscriptomic analyses of in situ microbial communities along a temporal and depth-resolved gradient, we describe the diversity of giant viruses at the Southern Ocean Time Series (SOTS), a site within the subpolar Southern Ocean. Using a phylogeny-guided taxonomic assessment of detected giant virus genomes and metagenome-assembled genomes, we observed depth-dependent structuring of divergent giant virus families mirroring dynamic physicochemical gradients in the stratified euphotic zone. Analyses of transcribed metabolic genes from giant viruses suggest viral metabolic reprogramming of hosts from the surface to a 200-m depth. Lastly, using on-deck incubations reflecting a gradient of iron availability, we show that modulating iron regimes influences the activity of giant viruses in the field. Specifically, we show enhanced infection signatures of giant viruses under both iron-replete and iron-limited conditions. Collectively, these results expand our understanding of how the water column's vertical biogeography and chemical surroundings affect an important group of viruses within the Southern Ocean. IMPORTANCE The biology and ecology of marine microbial eukaryotes is known to be constrained by oceanic conditions. In contrast, how viruses that infect this important group of organisms respond to environmental change is less well known, despite viruses being recognized as key microbial community members. Here, we address this gap in our understanding by characterizing the diversity and activity of "giant" viruses within an important region in the sub-Antarctic Southern Ocean. Giant viruses are double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses of the phylum Nucleocytoviricota and are known to infect a wide range of eukaryotic hosts. By employing a metatranscriptomics approach using both in situ samples and microcosm manipulations, we illuminated both the vertical biogeography and how changing iron availability affects this primarily uncultivated group of protist-infecting viruses. These results serve as a foundation for our understanding of how the open ocean water column structures the viral community, which can be used to guide models of the viral impact on marine and global biogeochemical cycling.

Climate change and the aquatic continuum: A cyanobacterial comeback story.

Billions of years ago, the Earth's waters were dominated by cyanobacteria. These microbes amassed to such formidable numbers, they ushered in a new era-starting with the Great Oxidation Event-fuelled by oxygenic photosynthesis. Throughout the following eon, cyanobacteria ceded portions of their global aerobic power to new photoautotrophs with the rise of eukaryotes (i.e. algae and higher plants), which co-existed with cyanobacteria in aquatic ecosystems. Yet while cyanobacteria's ecological success story is one of the most notorious within our planet's biogeochemical history, scientists to this day still seek to unlock the secrets of their triumph. Now, the Anthropocene has ushered in a new era fuelled by excessive nutrient inputs and greenhouse gas emissions, which are again reshaping the Earth's biomes. In response, we are experiencing an increase in global cyanobacterial bloom distribution, duration, and frequency, leading to unbalanced, and in many instances degraded, ecosystems. A critical component of the cyanobacterial resurgence is the freshwater-marine continuum: which serves to transport blooms, and the toxins they produce, on the premise that "water flows downhill". Here, we identify drivers contributing to the cyanobacterial comeback and discuss future implications in the context of environmental and human health along the aquatic continuum. This Minireview addresses the overlooked problem of the freshwater to marine continuum and the effects of nutrients and toxic cyanobacterial blooms moving along these waters. Marine and freshwater research have historically been conducted in isolation and independently of one another. Yet, this approach fails to account for the interchangeable transit of nutrients and biology through and between these freshwater and marine systems, a phenomenon that is becoming a major problem around the globe. This Minireview highlights what we know and the challenges that lie ahead.

Morphological, physiological, and transcriptional responses of the freshwater diatom Fragilaria crotonensis to elevated pH conditions.

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) caused by the toxin-producing cyanobacteria Microcystis spp., can increase water column pH. While the effect(s) of these basified conditions on the bloom formers are a high research priority, how these pH shifts affect other biota remains understudied. Recently, it was shown these high pH levels decrease growth and Si deposition rates in the freshwater diatom Fragilaria crotonensis and natural Lake Erie (Canada-US) diatom populations. However, the physiological mechanisms and transcriptional responses of diatoms associated with these observations remain to be documented. Here, we examined F. crotonensis with a set of morphological, physiological, and transcriptomic tools to identify cellular responses to high pH. We suggest 2 potential mechanisms that may contribute to morphological and physiological pH effects observed in F. crotonensis. Moreover, we identified a significant upregulation of mobile genetic elements in the F. crotonensis genome which appear to be an extreme transcriptional response to this abiotic stress to enhance cellular evolution rates-a process we have termed "genomic roulette." We discuss the ecological and biogeochemical effects high pH conditions impose on fresh waters and suggest a means by which freshwater diatoms such as F. crotonensis may evade high pH stress to survive in a "basified" future.

Response to Comment on "Models predict planned phosphorus load reduction will make Lake Erie more toxic".

Huisman et al. claim that our model is poorly supported or contradicted by other studies and the predictions are "seriously flawed." We show their criticism is based on an incomplete selection of evidence, misinterpretation of data, or does not actually refute the model. Like all ecosystem models, our model has simplifications and uncertainties, but it is better than existing approaches hat ignore biology and do not predict toxin concentration.

Metagenome-Assembled Genome of a Pseudanabaena sp. from a Crimson Cyanobacterial Bloom in Lake Salubria, New York, USA.

Pseudanabaena spp. are filamentous cyanobacteria widely distributed in temperate lakes. Though infrequent, they can form harmful algal blooms. Here, we present a high-quality metagenome-assembled genome of a Pseudanabaena sp. from a toxic, crimson cyanobacterial bloom in Lake Salubria, NY.

Draft Genome Sequence of the Freshwater Diatom Fragilaria crotonensis SAG 28.96.

Here, we report the assembled and annotated genome of the freshwater diatom Fragilaria crotonensis SAG 28.96. The 61.85-Mb nuclear genome was assembled into 879 contigs, has a GC content of 47.40%, contains 26,015 predicted genes, and shows completeness of 81%.

Metatranscriptomic Sequencing of Winter and Spring Planktonic Communities from Lake Erie, a Laurentian Great Lake.

Previous reports suggest planktonic and under-ice winter microbial communities in Lake Erie are dominated by diatoms. Here, we report the assembled metatranscriptomes of 79 Lake Erie surface water microbial communities spanning both the winter (28 samples) and spring (51 samples) months over spatial, temporal, and climatic gradients in 2019 through 2020.

Closed, Circular Genome Sequence of Aureococcus anophagefferens Virus, a Lytic Virus of a Brown Tide-Forming Alga.

Here, we report the genomic sequence of Aureococcus anophagefferens virus, assembled into one circular contig from both Nanopore and Illumina reads. The genome is 381,717 bp long with a GC content of 29.1%, which includes an additional 5-kb region between the previously predicted polar ends of the reference genome.

Models predict planned phosphorus load reduction will make Lake Erie more toxic.

Harmful cyanobacteria are a global environmental problem, yet we lack actionable understanding of toxigenic versus nontoxigenic strain ecology and toxin production. We performed a large-scale meta-analysis including 103 papers and used it to develop a mechanistic, agent-based model of Microcystis growth and microcystin production. Simulations for Lake Erie suggest that the observed toxigenic-to-nontoxigenic strain succession during the 2014 Toledo drinking water crisis was controlled by different cellular oxidative stress mitigation strategies (protection by microcystin versus degradation by enzymes) and the different susceptibility of those mechanisms to nitrogen limitation. This model, as well as a simpler empirical one, predicts that the planned phosphorus load reduction will lower biomass but make nitrogen and light more available, which will increase toxin production, favor toxigenic cells, and increase toxin concentrations.

Changes in Microbiome Activity and Sporadic Viral Infection Help Explain Observed Variability in Microcosm Studies.

The environmental conditions experienced by microbial communities are rarely fully simulated in the laboratory. Researchers use experimental containers ("bottles"), where natural samples can be manipulated and evaluated. However, container-based methods are subject to "bottle effects": changes that occur when enclosing the plankton community that are often times unexplained by standard measures like pigment and nutrient concentrations. We noted variability in a short-term, nutrient amendment experiment during a 2019 Lake Erie, Microcystis spp. bloom. We observed changes in heterotrophic bacteria activity (transcription) on a time-frame consistent with a response to experimental changes in nutrient availability, demonstrating how the often overlooked microbiome of cyanobacterial blooms can be altered. Samples processed at the time of collection (T0) contained abundant transcripts from Bacteroidetes, which reduced in abundance during incubation in all bottles, including controls. Significant biological variability in the expression of Microcystis-infecting phage was observed between replicates, with phosphate-amended treatments showing a 10-fold variation. The expression patterns of Microcystis-infecting phage were significantly correlated with ∼35% of Microcystis-specific functional genes and ∼45% of the cellular-metabolites measured across the entire microbial community, suggesting phage activity not only influenced Microcystis dynamics, but the biochemistry of the microbiome. Our observations demonstrate how natural heterogeneity among replicates can be harnessed to provide further insight on virus and host ecology.