The effect of dual training on the hazard response and attention allocation of novice drivers when driving with advanced driver assistance system.

To ensure traffic safety when driving with an advanced driving assistance system (ADAS), drivers are still required to take over control of the vehicle in case of emergency. Drivers' takeover performance jointly relies on their capability to anticipate the potential hazards in traffic scenarios and an appropriate understanding of ADAS capabilities. However, previous research mostly focused on strengthening drivers' understanding of ADAS capabilities but ignored drivers' hazard perception capabilities when using ADAS - the latter is especially weak among novice drivers. This study proposed and evaluated three training methods for novice drivers, i.e., ADAS training only (AD training), hazard perception training only (HP training), and AD+HP training. Their effectiveness on drivers' attention allocation strategies and responses to hazardous scenarios when handling hazardous scenarios with different levels of complexity were evaluated among 32 novice drivers in a driving simulator study. Results show that the proposed AD+HP training outperformed AD training and HP training in terms of attention allocation strategies (i.e., wider distribution of attention) and responses in hazardous scenarios (i.e., quicker and more attention to cues of importance and larger minimum time gap). However, the effectiveness of all kinds of training was weakened in more complex scenarios. Findings from this study provide insights into driver training in the context of driving automation.

Identifying novice drivers in need of hazard perception ability improvement for takeover performance in Level 3 automated driving.

Takeover performance is a crucial constraint on deploying Level 3 automated driving. Not all drivers can adopt appropriate strategies to take over vehicle control during safety-critical situations. The hazard perception abilities of novice drivers may cause individual differences in urgent takeover performance. This research examines the urgent takeover performances of novice drivers with different hazard perception abilities for takeover safety improvement. Forty novice drivers took over in urgent cut-in situations at a driving simulator. The hazard perception tests evaluated their hazard perception abilities. This study formulated moderating effect models based on experimental data. Results indicated that hazard perception ability indirectly affected the significance of the correlation between takeover reaction and steering behaviors. Drivers with improved hazard perception abilities are less likely to turn sharply on the steering wheel. In this study, 39.8% of the participants need to improve their hazard perception abilities. Their z-scores were longer than 0.002 in hazard perception tests. Findings can identify the individuals who need hazard perception training to enhance their takeover performance effectively.

Development of an algorithm for analysis of routes: Case studies using novice and older drivers.

INTRODUCTION: This study addresses the lack of methods to quantify driver familiarity with roadways, which poses a higher risk of crashes. METHOD: We present a new approach to assessing driving route diversity and familiarity using data from the DrivingApp, a smartphone-based research tool that collects trip-level information, including driving exposure and global positioning system (GPS) data, from young novice drivers (15-19 years old) to older drivers (67-78 years old). Using these data, we developed a GPS data-based algorithm to analyze the uniqueness of driving routes. The algorithm creates same route trip (SRT) arrays by comparing each trip of an identified user, employing statistically determined thresholds for GPS coordinate proximity and trip overlap. The optimal thresholds were established using a General Linear Model (GLM) to examine distance, and repeated observations. The Adjusted Breadth-First Search method is applied to the SRT arrays to prevent double counting or trip omission. The resulting list is classified as geographically distinct routes, or unique routes (URs). RESULTS: Manual comparison of algorithm output with geographical maps yielded an overall precision of 0.93 and accuracy of 0.91. The algorithm produces two main outputs: a measure of driving diversity (number of URs) and a measure of route-based familiarity derived from the Rescorla-Wagner model. To evaluate the utility of these measures, a Gaussian mixture model clustering algorithm was used on the young novice driver dataset, revealing two distinct groups: the low-frequency driving group with lower route familiarity when having higher route diversity, whereas the high-frequency driving group with the opposite pattern. In the older driver group, there was a significant correlation found between the number of URs and Geriatric Depression Score, or walking gait speed. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: These findings suggest that route diversity and familiarity could complement existing measures to understand driving safety and how driving behavior is related to physical and psychological outcomes.

Comparative Analysis of Adaptation Behaviors of Different Types of Drivers to Steer-by-Wire Systems.

As one of the advanced automotive chassis technologies, the steer-by-wire system offers a high level of precision, responsiveness, and controllability in the driving experience. It can also adjust and optimize parameters to adapt to the preferences of different drivers. However, when faced with the steer-by-wire system, both experienced drivers and novice drivers are in the novice stage, exhibiting learning or adaptation behaviors when using this steering system. In this paper, a small-scale pilot evaluation was conducted by means of a questionnaire survey and driving-simulator experiment, and the learning behavior and adaptability of four experienced and four novice drivers to the steer-by-wire system were analyzed when using the traditional steering system. The study found that experienced drivers show significant changes in their adaptation to the steering system, mainly due to their habitual driving with traditional steering systems. In contrast, novice drivers show no significant changes in their adaptation to the steering system, which is attributed to their lack of driving experience and skills, resulting in less sensitivity to changes in the steering system. Additionally, the study found that novice drivers under the steer-by-wire system grasp control over speed and steering-wheel angle more quickly. This research provides a reference for improving drivers' learning and adaptation abilities to the steer-by-wire system and optimizing the design of the steer-by-wire system.

Principal Components Analysis of Driving Simulator Variables in Novice Drivers.

Objective: Although driving simulators are powerful tools capable of measuring a wide-ranging set of tactical and operational level driving behaviors, comparing these behaviors across studies is problematic because there is no core set of driving variables to report when assessing driving behavior in simulated driving scenarios. To facilitate comparisons across studies, researchers need consistency in how driving simulator variables combine to assess driving behavior. With inter-study consistency, driving simulator research could support stronger conclusions about safe driving behaviors and more reliably identify future driver training goals. The purpose of the current study was to derive empirically and theoretically meaningful composite scores from driving behaviors of young people in a driving simulator, utilizing driving data from across a variety of driving environments and from within the individual driving environments. Method: One hundred ninety adolescent participants aged 16 years or 18 years at enrollment provided demographic data and drove in a high-fidelity driving simulator. The simulated scenario included 4 distinct environments: Urban, Freeway, Residential, and a Car Following Task (CFT). A Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was conducted on the variable output from the driving simulator to select optimal factor solutions and loadings both across the multi-environmental drive and within the four individual driving environments. Results: The PCA suggested two components from the multi-environmental simulated drive: vehicle control and speed. The individual driving environments also indicated two components: vehicle control and tactical judgment. Conclusion: These findings are among the first steps for identifying composite driving simulator variables to quantify theoretical conceptualizations of driving behavior. Currently, driving behavior and performance measured by driving simulators lack "gold standards" via driving scores or benchmarks. The composites derived in this analysis may be studied for further use where driving behavior standards are increasingly sought by clinicians and practitioners for a variety of populations, as well as by parents concerned about the readiness of their novice driving teen.

Young novice drivers' road crash injuries and contributing factors: A crash data investigation.

OBJECTIVE: Collisions are a significant cause of injury and fatality among young novice drivers. Using real crash data, this study further explores the multifaceted and complex nature of young novice drivers' crash injury risk by synthesizing different driver attributes and crash scenarios in order to update and validate previous research findings and provide more feasible recommendations for preventive measures. METHODS: Detailed data on traffic crash of young novice drivers were extracted from the National Automobile Accident In-Depth Investigation System (NAIS) in China, and a mixed research methodology using a Random Forest and multinomial logit modeling framework was used in order to explore and study the important influences on traffic crash injuries of young novice drivers in Songjiang District, Shanghai, during the period from 2018 to 2022. RESULTS: The results of the study showed that human, vehicle, road and environmental characteristics contributed 36.83%, 22.65%, 17.07% and 23.45% respectively to the prediction of crash injury level of novice drivers. Among the various single factors, driver negligence was the most important factor affecting the crash injury level of novice drivers. Age of the vehicle, crash location, road signal condition and time of crash all had a significant effect on the crash injury level of young novice drivers (95% of the confidence level). CONCLUSIONS: The study comprehensively analyzed young novice driver crash data to reveal the crash injury risk and its severity faced by young novice drivers in different contexts, and suggested targeted safety improvements. There are similarities and differences with the results of previous studies, in which there are new contributions to understanding the driving risks of young novice drivers in daytime and nighttime.

The effects of the traffic signs information volume on the visual characteristics and workload of novice and experienced drivers.

BACKGROUND: The effects of traffic sign information volume (TSIV) on the visual characteristics and workload of novice and experienced drivers were investigated in this study. TSIV plays a crucial role in road traffic safety, and understanding its impact on drivers is essential for designing effective traffic sign systems. OBJECTIVE: This research aimed to compare the visual characteristics and workload of novice and experienced drivers under varying TSIV doses through simulated driving tests. The objective was to provide insights for optimizing the design of road TSIV. METHODS: Six TSIV levels were considered: S0, S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5, representing different workload levels. Participants, including both novice and experienced drivers, were involved in simulated driving scenarios with varying TSIV levels. Eye movement data was collected using an eye tracker device. The study was conducted in China, and appropriate driving simulators and equipment were utilized. RESULTS: The findings revealed several valuable results. Experienced drivers exhibited a higher proportion of saccade behavior in the 30-90 ms time period and did not show rapid saccade behavior during the 0-30 ms period, indicating superior visual search strategies. Both novice and experienced drivers demonstrated improved visual cognitive abilities at the S3 level of TSIV, which corresponds to normal and safe driving conditions. Furthermore, a majority of both groups had saccade amplitudes in the range of 0°-4°, with experienced drivers showing a slightly higher proportion. About 82% of experienced drivers had saccade behavior within the range of 0°-2°, compared to 75% of novice drivers. CONCLUSIONS: The study concludes that the S3 level of TSIV, corresponding to 30 bits/km, is optimal for both novice and experienced drivers. This level promotes better visual performance and reduces visual workload, indicating that drivers' information acquisition capacity and visual search strategies are maximized while keeping the workload associated with driving at a minimum. These findings have significant implications for enhancing driving safety.

Outcome evaluation of the p drivers Program: Randomised controlled trial of a program to improve safe driving among novice drivers.

BACKGROUND: Globally, road traffic crashes are the leading cause of death for young adults. The P Drivers Project was a trial of a behavioural change program developed for, and targeted at, young Australian drivers in their initial months of solo driving when crash risk is at its highest. METHODS: In a parallel group randomised controlled trial, drivers (N = 35,109) were recruited within 100 days of obtaining their probationary licence (allowing them to drive unaccompanied) and randomised to an intervention or control group. The intervention was a 3 to 6-week multi-stage driving behaviour change program (P Drivers Program). Surveys were administered at three time points (pre-Program, approximately one month post-Program and at 12 months after). The outcome evaluation employed an on-treatment analysis comprising the 2,419 intervention and 2,810 control participants who completed all required activities, comparing self-reported crashes and police-reported casualty crashes (primary outcome), infringements, self-reported attitudes and behaviours (secondary outcomes) between groups. RESULTS: The P Drivers Program improved awareness of crash risk factors and intentions to drive more safely, relative to the controls; effects were maintained after 12-months. However, the Program did not reduce self-reported crashes or police-reported casualty crashes. In addition, self-reported violations, errors and risky driving behaviours increased in the intervention group compared to the control group as did recorded traffic infringements. This suggests that despite the Program increasing awareness of risky behaviour in novice drivers, behaviour did not improve. This reinforces the need to collect objective measures to accompany self-reported behaviour and intentions. CONCLUSIONS: The P Drivers Program was successful in improving attitudes toward driving safety but the negative impact on behaviour, lack of effect on crashes, and the large loss to follow-up fail to support the use of a post-licensing behaviour change program to improve novice driver behaviour and reduce crashes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: 363,293 (ANZCTR, 2012).

Understanding risky driving behaviors among young novice drivers in Nigeria: A latent class analysis coupled with association rule mining approach.

Traffic crashes are significant public health concern in Nigeria, particularly among young drivers. The study aims to explore the underlying pattern of risky driving behaviors and the associations with demographic factors among young drivers in Nigeria. A combined approach of Latent Class Analysis (LCA) and Association Rule Mining is applied to the dataset comprising responses from 684 young drivers who complete the "Behavior of Young Novice Drivers Scale" (BYND) questionnaires. The LCA identifies four distinct classes of drivers based on the risky behavior profiles: Reckless-Speedsters, Cautious Drivers, Distracted Multitaskers, and Emotion-impacted Drivers. Association rule mining further connects these driver classes to demographic and driving history variables, uncovering intriguing insights. Reckless-Speedsters predominantly consist of young males who engage in riskier driving behaviors, including exceeding speed limits and disregarding traffic rules. Conversely, Cautious Drivers, also predominantly young males, exhibit a safer driving profile marked by rule adherence and a notably lower crash rate. Distracted Multitaskers, sharing a demographic profile with Cautious Drivers, diverge significantly due to their higher crash involvement, hinting at a propensity for distracted driving practices. Lastly, Emotion-Impacted Drivers, primarily comprising young employed males, display behaviors influenced by emotions, shorter driving distances, and prior unsupervised driving experience. Most of the behaviors are attributed to inadequate traffic control, absence of traffic signs in most of the roads, preferential treatment, and lack of strict law enforcement in the country. The findings hold substantial implications for road safety interventions in Nigeria, urging targeted approaches to address the unique challenges presented by each driver class. With acknowledging the study limitations and advocating for future research in objective measures and emotion-behavior interactions, the comprehensive approach provides a robust foundation for enhancing road safety in the Nigerian context.

The Effectiveness of a Digital Game-Based Intervention on Hazard Perception and Visual Skills in Novice Drivers: A Single Blind, Randomized Controlled Trial.

Novice drivers show poorer performance than experienced drivers in terms of visual skills and hazard perception. This study aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of a digital game-based intervention on hazard perception and visual skills in novice drivers. Forty-six novice drivers (6 men, 40 women) were randomized to the intervention group (n = 23; 20.79 ± 0.81 years) or control (n = 23; 20.65 ± 0.93 years) group. The intervention group received a game-based intervention in addition to a hazard perception training, whereas the control group received only the hazard perception training. Hazard perception and visual skills were assessed in both groups before and after the 14-day interventions. Between-group comparisons revealed significantly greater improvements in visual short time memory, visual closure, visual discrimination, figure-ground and total scores in the game-based group than in the control group (p < 0.05 for all). Our results showed that 14 days of game-based intervention enhanced hazard perception and visual skills in novice drivers. Using game-based interventions in driving rehabilitation is recommended to improve hazard perception and visual skills of novice drivers.

Young drivers and smartphone use: The impact of legal and non-legal deterrents.

INTRODUCTION: Young drivers continue to be overrepresented in road crash statistics and smartphone use has been identified as a dangerous form of driver distraction. Previous research has identified factors encouraging drivers to use their mobile phone, with few examining what deters drivers. This study examines the influence of legal and non-legal deterrents on smartphone use while driving (SWD) in a young adult sample. METHOD: An online survey was administered to a sample of 524 Australian drivers aged 17-25 years. Measures included demographic variables, legal deterrents (certainty, severity, and swiftness), and non-legal deterrents: social loss (peers and parents), internal loss (anticipated regret) and physical loss (injury to self/others). Self-reported SWD was the outcome variable, measured separately for initiating SWD and responding SWD behaviors. RESULTS: Responding behaviors were reported more frequently than initiating, and social, internal, and physical loss were perceived as higher for initiating versus responding behaviors. Anticipated action regret and physical loss were significant negative predictors of SWD across both modalities of communication. Anticipated inaction regret was also a significant positive predictor of initiating behaviors. Both legal deterrents and social loss were non-significant predictors for both modalities of SWD. CONCLUSIONS: The results reinforce previous evidence showing that legal deterrence variables are not consistently effective at reducing offending behaviors. Future research should continue to explore the effect of non-legal deterrents across different modalities of SWD. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Road safety interventions aimed at young drivers should evaluate the impact of highlighting anticipated regret and potential injury to self and others associated with risky driving behaviors, such as SWD.

Novel use of a virtual driving assessment to classify driver skill at the time of licensure.

Motor vehicle crash rates are highest immediately after licensure, and driver error is one of the leading causes. Yet, few studies have quantified driving skills at the time of licensure, making it difficult to identify at-risk drivers before independent driving. Using data from a virtual driving assessment implemented into the licensing workflow in Ohio, this study presents the first population-level study classifying degree of skill at the time of licensure and validating these against a measure of on-road performance: license exam outcomes. Principal component and cluster analysis of 33,249 virtual driving assessments identified 20 Skill Clusters that were then grouped into 4 major summary "Driving Classes"; i) No Issues (i.e. careful and skilled drivers); ii) Minor Issues (i.e. an average new driver with minor vehicle control skill deficits); iii) Major Issues (i.e. drivers with more control issues and who take more risks); and iv) Major Issues with Aggression (i.e. drivers with even more control issues and more reckless and risk-taking behavior). Category labels were determined based on patterns of VDA skill deficits alone (i.e. agnostic of the license examination outcome). These Skill Clusters and Driving Classes had different distributions by sex and age, reflecting age-related licensing policies (i.e. those under 18 and subject to GDL and driver education and training), and were differentially associated with subsequent performance on the on-road licensing examination (showing criterion validity). The No Issues and Minor Issues classes had lower than average odds of failing, and the other two more problematic Driving Classes had higher odds of failing. Thus, this study showed that license applicants can be classified based on their driving skills at the time of licensure. Future studies will validate these Skill Cluster classes in relation to their prediction of post-licensure crash outcomes.

Why are newly qualified motorists at high crash risk? Modelling driving behaviours across the first six months of driving.

OBJECTIVE: Novice driver crash risk diminishes steeply over the first few months of driving. We explore the characteristics of driving over this period to identify behaviours that might underlie this change in risk. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study of 1456 UK drivers aged 17-21 within six months of gaining their licence. We examined how various forms of driving exposure, such as weekly mileage and driving at night, were related to duration of licencing. We explored the factor structure of the Early Driving Development Questionnaire (EDD-Q); a new instrument designed to measure safety relevant attitudes and behaviours in recently qualified drivers. We examined the relationship of the derived factors to licence duration. RESULTS: There was little evidence that greater exposure to risky driving situations was more common in those with shorter licence durations. Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses identified EDD-Q factors measuring risky style (12 items), skill deficiencies (8 items) and driving confidence (4 items). Licence duration was positively correlated with both risky style and confidence, with these relationships stronger for older novices. Licence duration was also negatively related to skill deficiencies (i.e., positively correlated with perceived driving skill development): this relationship was stronger in younger novices. CONCLUSIONS: The negative correlation between license duration and skill deficiencies is consistent with the observation of decreasing novice crash involvement as experience is gained. The EDD-Q offers a new brief measure of aberrant driving that is specifically tailored for newly qualified drivers.

Identifying best practices in a process evaluation of a novice driver education program.

Best practice for learning to drive programs should be evidence-based and incorporate the range of lower and higher-order skills outlined in the internationally recognized Goals for Driver Education (GDE) matrix. A set of practices derived from the matrix, together with pertinent adult learning approaches and driving instruction research formed the basis of an evaluation checklist developed to review the Keys2drive program (a national single-session interactive education program for learner drivers in Australia). The checklist criteria consisted of 18 practices, including: having a sound theoretical base; reflecting various GDE components; facilitating parental involvement; provision of feedback; building resilience; use of coaching approaches; commentary driving; self-assessment; understanding of risk factors; and supporting safe vehicle choices and graduated licensing schemes. The program review sought to determine the extent to which Keys2drive is aligned with best practice according to the checklist criteria. Evaluations of driver education programs should recognize that novice drivers, in discussions with their instructors/supervisors, may have differing interpretations and values concerning various GDE goals, such as their awareness of critical risk factors. As a best practice, instructors should be prepared to ask the novice 'How?' and 'Why?' questions relevant to their GDE goal interpretations and values.

Correlations among self-report, static image, and video-based hazard perception assessments: The validity of a new Lithuanian hazard prediction test.

Scholars suggest that improving hazard perception (HP) skills among different road users can lead to safer driving. To this end, a small number of countries have developed a national hazard perception test for their licensing procedures. The purpose of the current research is to develop and validate a new video-based hazard prediction test for the Lithuanian driving context. Eighty-eight drivers participated in the study. Initially, 25 naturalistic clips were included and edited into a hazard prediction test following the "what happens next?" paradigm. The overall score of the test was higher for experienced drivers when compared with novices. On further inspection the overall group difference was driven by 12 clips. The Lithuanian Hazard Perception test HPT-LIT featuring static images (Tuske et al., 2019) and Hazard Perception Questionnaire developed by White et al. (2011) were used to validate the new test. This new version of the test (12 clips, LHP12) showed acceptable psychometric properties. Drivers with less driving experience demonstrated poorer hazard prediction skills than experienced drivers. The results revealed a negative correlation between hazard prediction scores on LHP12 and crash involvement in the novice driver group, as well as a positive correlation between prediction scores and self-reported hazard prediction skills. It was concluded that the new Lithuanian hazard test shows potential for future research.

Assessing Driving Risk at the Second Phase of Overtaking on Two-Lane Highways for Young Novice Drivers Based on Driving Simulation.

Overtaking on two-lane highways is a complex and multi-phase maneuver associated with high collision risk, especially for young novice drivers. Most of the relevant studies, however, focused mainly on the first phase, i.e., the lane-changing phase, such as willingness to overtake, while the second phase, i.e., the back-to-lane phase, has not been investigated systematically. It is a risky phase in which a driver faces the risk of collision with not only the approaching vehicle on the opposite lane but also the impeding vehicle at the original lane. In this study, by designing and conducting a driving simulator experiment, we assess the driving risk of 47 young novice drivers during their second phase of overtaking on two-lane highways. The time-to-collision (TTC) values at the two critical positions are calculated from a micro-geometric point of view, based on which a two-dimensional risk index is proposed and the fuzzy C-means clustering algorithm is applied to group all the samples and to assess their overtaking risk. Furthermore, a multi-class logistic model is developed to understand the potential factors related to the risky overtaking maneuvers at this phase. The results show that most of the young novice drivers cannot make accurate judgments during their second phase of overtaking. When turning back to the original lane, they are more likely to be aware of the opposite vehicle that is approaching them, while how to correctly avoid the collision risk with the impeding vehicle at this phase is probably a more critical issue for young novice drivers.

A unified deterrence-based model of legal and non-legal factors that influence young driver speeding behaviour.

Young driver speeding behaviour remains a large contributor to road trauma worldwide. In order to provide a more-in depth understanding of how to deter young drivers from this behaviour, this study developed and tested a model of the legal and non-legal factors that influence young driver's intentional speeding behaviour (exceeding the speed limit by more than 10 km/hr). A prospective survey design was conducted to measure the impact of perceptions of legal factors (including classical deterrence and reconceptualised deterrence variables) and non-legal factors (including the variables of fear of physical loss, material loss and perceived social sanctions, as well as the perception that it is safe to engage in the behaviour without being involved in a crash) at time 1, on engagement in speeding behaviour at time 2, which occurred 3 months later. A total of 200 participants aged 17-25 years completed both surveys (Mean age = 20.44 years). Using structural equation modelling, a unique model combining classical and extended deterrence theory, as well as prominent non-legal factors was created, and the variables were able to explain 41% of the variance in speeding behaviour. A high perceived severity of the punishment, experiencing direct punishment avoidance and perceiving that it is safe to speed were significant direct predictors. Meanwhile, there were also numerous significant partially mediated relationships found for both legal and non-legal variables. These findings provide important implications for both the application of deterrence-based theories in road safety and for improving countermeasures to deter young drivers more effectively from engagement in speeding.

Tools for Transport: Driven to Learn With Connected Vehicles.

Vehicle automation and assistance technologies have been touted as a means to reduce traffic collisions by minimizing or eliminating "error-prone" and inefficient human operators. In concept, automation exists on a continuum that includes engaged driving by a human operator augmented by automated support features, vigilant driver monitoring of vehicle behavior with the possibility of driver take-over, to full automation with no active monitoring by a human operator. Moreover, the degree of automation varies by vehicle features (e.g., lane centering, emergency braking, adaptive cruise control, parking), by setting, meaning that automated features may or may not be available depending on specific attributes of the traffic environment (e.g., traffic volume, road geometry, etc), and by implementation (e.g., haptic vs. auditory warnings). Thus, these automotive "transportation tools" are highly heterogeneous and pose unique challenges and opportunities for driver training. In this paper, we report the results of an experimental study (n = 36) to determine if enhanced vehicle feedback influences driver trust, effort, frustration, and performance (indexed by reaction time) in a virtual driving environment. Results are contextualized in the extant literature on learning to operate motor vehicles and outline key research questions essential for understanding the processes by which skilled performance develops with respect to a real-world practical tool: the increasingly automated automobile.

Time to licensure for driving among U.S. teens: Survival analysis of interval-censored survey data.

OBJECTIVE: Novice drivers who delay in driving licensure may miss safety benefits of Graduate Driver Licensing (GDL) programs, potentially putting themselves at higher crash-risk. Time to licensure relates their access to independent transportation to potential future economic- and educational-related opportunities. The objective of this study was to explore time to licensure associations with teens' race/ethnicity and GDL restrictions. METHODS: Secondary analysis using all seven annual assessments of the NEXT Generation Health Study, a nationally representative longitudinal study starting with 10th grade (N = 2785; 2009-2010 school year). Data were collected in U.S. public/private schools, colleges, workplaces, and other settings. The outcome variable was interval-censored time to licensure (event = obtained driving licensure). Independent variables included race/ethnicity and state-specific GDL restrictions. Covariates included family affluence, parent education, nativity, sex, and urbanicity. Proportional hazards (PH) models were conducted for interval-censored survival analysis based on stepwise backward elimination for fitting multivariate models with consideration of complex survey features. In the PH models, a hazard ratio (HR) estimates a greater (>1) or lesser (<1) likelihood of licensure at all timepoints. RESULTS: Median time to licensure after reaching legal driving age for Latinos, African Americans, and Non-Latino Whites was 3.47, 2.90, and 0.41 years, respectively. Multivariate PH models showed that Latinos were 46% less likely (HR = 0.54, 95%CI: 0.35-0.72) and African Americans were 56% less likely (HR = 0.44, 95%CI: 0.32-0.56) to have obtained licensure at any time compared to Non-Latino Whites. Only learner minimum age GDL restriction was associated with time to licensure. Living in a state with a required learner driving minimum age of ≥16 years (HR = 0.57, 95%CI: 0.16-0.98) also corresponded with 43% lower likelihood of licensure at legal eligibility compared to living in other states with a required learner driving minimum age of <16 years. CONCLUSION: Latinos and African American teens obtained their license approximately three years after eligibility on average, and much later than Non-Latino Whites. Time to licensure likelihood was associated with race/ethnicity and required minimum age of learner permit, indicating important implications for teens of different racial/ethnic groups in relation to licensure, access to independent transportation, and exposure to GDL programs.

Validation of the attention-related driving errors scale in novice adolescent drivers.

INTRODUCTION: Motor vehicle collisions (MVCs) are a leading cause of death among adolescents. Identifying factors that contribute to adolescent MVCs is a pressing public health need. Exogenous (cell phones, passengers, music) and endogenous (stress, worry, mind-wandering) forms of driver inattention account for approximately 78% of all MVCs in the United States. Though both exogenous and endogenous distraction contribute to crash risk, prior work investigating adolescent crash risk has largely focused on exogenous distractors. The Attention-Related Driving Errors Scale (ARDES) is a promising measure assessing individual differences in endogenous driver inattention that has been validated in adult drivers. Its validation in an adolescent sample may prove useful in tailoring future interventions to decrease MVC risk in young drivers. METHODS: This study sought to validate the ARDES in novice adolescent drivers by investigating its underlying factor structure and its relations with self-reported measures of daily inattention, performance-based attention assessments, and a self-report measure of driving behavior. RESULTS: Replicating earlier work in adults, results suggested ARDES items can be classified according to their operational level of the driving. The ARDES had good internal reliability and construct validity, suggesting it is a valid self-report measure of the propensity for adolescents' attentional errors while driving. DISCUSSION: The ARDES provides a useful tool for researchers to identify adolescents at greater risk of attentional errors while driving. Future research should use the ARDES to better understand the role of driver inattention in adolescent crash risk.