Removal of neonicotinoids present in secondary effluents by ferrate(VI)-based oxidation processes.

The persistence in the environment and possible harmful effects of neonicotinoid insecticides have raised some concerns, which have led to the proposal of various measures for their remediation. The aim of this work was to study the elimination of five neonicotinoids (thiamethoxam (THM), imidacloprid (IMI), clothianidin (CLO), thiacloprid (THC), and acetamiprid (ACE)) using ferrate (Fe(VI)) as the oxidizing agent. Firstly, second-order rate constants for the reactions of neonicotinoids with Fe(VI) were determined at different pHs. The most reactive compound was THC, with a rate constant of 400 ± 43 M-1 s-1 at pH 8 (the optimum pH considering the predominance of the most reactive species (HFeO4-) and the decreasing self-decomposition of Fe(VI) with pH), followed by CLO (10.7 ± 1.7 M-1 s-1), THM (9.7 ± 0.7 M-1 s-1), and IMI (2.5 ± 0.6 M-1 s-1). ACE did not significantly react with Fe(VI). The oxidation of the selected pollutants in secondary effluents by Fe(VI) was rather slow, and only THC could be efficiently removed. The presence of natural organic matter (NOM) exerted a negative influence on the removal of the neonicotinoids of moderate reactivity with Fe(VI) (CLO, THM, and IMI). The additional presence of peroxymonosulfate (Fe(VI)/PMS system) slightly increased the removal of neonicotinoids due to the formation of hydroxyl and sulfate radicals. Finally, the application of the Fe(VI)/sulfite system considerably increased the oxidation rate of the selected pollutants, with enhanced formation of hydroxyl and, especially, sulfate radicals. Overall, these results suggest that the Fe(VI)/sulfite system has significant potential to address environmental and health concerns associated with neonicotinoids in water sources with low NOM content.

Adsorption of selected emerging contaminants onto PAC and GAC: Equilibrium isotherms, kinetics, and effect of the water matrix.

The removal of three emerging contaminants (ECs) (amitriptyline hydrochloride (AH), methyl salicylate (MS) and 2-phenoxyethanol (PE)) dissolved in several water matrices by means of their adsorption onto powdered activated carbon (PAC) and granular activated carbon (GAC) has been investigated. When dissolved in ultrapure water, adsorption of the ECs followed the trend of AH > MS > PE, with a positive effect of the adsorbent dose. According to the analysis of the adsorption isotherms and adsorption kinetics, PAC showed strongly higher adsorption efficiency in both capacity and velocity of the adsorption, in agreement with its higher mesoporosity. Equilibrium isotherm data were fitted by Langmuir and Freundlich models. Pseudo-second order kinetics modeled very successfully the adsorption process. Finally, the effect of the presence of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in the water matrices (ultrapure water, surface water and two effluents from wastewater treatment plants) on the adsorption of the selected ECs onto PAC was established, as well as its performance on the removal of water quality parameters. Results show a negative effect of the DOM content on the adsorption efficiency. Over 50% of organic matter was removed with high PAC doses, revealing that adsorption onto PAC is an effective technology to remove both micro-pollutants and DOM from water matrices.

Assessment of the UV/Cl2 advanced oxidation process for the degradation of the emerging contaminants amitriptyline hydrochloride, methyl salicylate and 2-phenoxyethanol in water systems.

Three emerging contaminants (amitriptyline hydrochloride (AH), methyl salicylate (MS) and 2-phenoxyethanol (PE)) frequently found in wastewaters were selected to be individually degraded in ultra-pure water by the advanced oxidation process (AOP) constituted by the combination of UV radiation and chlorine. The influence of pH, initial chlorine concentration and nature of the contaminants was firstly explored. The trend for the reactivity of the selected compounds was deduced: AH > MS > PE. A later kinetic study was carried out focused on the evaluation of the first-order rate constants and the determination of the partial contribution to the global reaction of the direct photochemical pathway and the radical pathway. In a second stage, the simultaneous oxidation of mixtures of the selected contaminants in several types of water was also performed by the same combination UV/Cl2. The efficiency of this combined system UV/Cl2 was compared to other oxidants such as the UV/[Formula: see text] and UV/H2O2 AOPs, and the influence of the operating variables was discussed. Results confirmed that the UV/Cl2 system provides higher elimination efficiencies among the AOPs tested. The presence of dissolved organic matter and bicarbonate ions in the water matrix caused a decrease in the treatment efficiency.

Ozonation of benzotriazole and methylindole: Kinetic modeling, identification of intermediates and reaction mechanisms.

The ozonation of 1H-benzotriazole (BZ) and 3-methylindole (ML), two emerging contaminants that are frequently present in aquatic environments, was investigated. The experiments were performed with the contaminants (1µM) dissolved in ultrapure water. The kinetic study led to the determination of the apparent rate constants for the ozonation reactions. In the case of 1H-benzotriazole, these rate constants varied from 20.1 ± 0.4M(-1)s(-1) at pH=3 to 2143 ± 23 M(-1)s(-1) at pH=10. Due to its acidic nature (pKa=8.2), the degree of dissociation of this pollutant was determined at every pH of work, and the specific rate constants of the un-dissociated and dissociated species were evaluated, being the values of these rate constants 20.1 ± 2.0 and 2.0 ± 0.3 × 10(3)M(-1)s(-1), respectively. On the contrary, 3-methylindole does not present acidic nature, and therefore, it can be proposed an average value for its rate constant of 4.90 ± 0.7 × 10(5)M(-1)s(-1) in the whole pH range 3-10. Further experiments were performed to identify the main degradation byproducts (10 mg L(-1) of contaminants, 0.023 gh(-1) of ozone). Up to 8 intermediates formed in the ozonation of 3-methylindole were identified by LC-TOFMS, while 6 intermediates were identified in the ozonation of 1H-benzotriazole. By considering these intermediate compounds, the reaction mechanisms were proposed and discussed. Finally, evaluated rate constants allowed to predict and modeling the oxidation of these micropollutants in general aquatic systems.

Modeling the photodegradation of emerging contaminants in waters by UV radiation and UV/H2O2 system.

Five emerging contaminants (1-H-Benzotriazole, N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide or DEET, Chlorophene, 3-Methylindole, and Nortriptyline HCl), frequently found in surface waters and wastewaters, were selected to be photooxidized in several water matrices. Previous degradation experiments of these compounds individually dissolved in ultra pure water were performed by using UV radiation at 254 nm and the Fenton's reagent. These oxidation systems allowed the determination of the quantum yields and the rate constants for the radical reaction between each compound and hydroxyl radicals. Later, the simultaneous photodegradation of mixtures of the selected ECs in several types of water (ultrapure water, reservoir water, and two effluents from WWTPs) was carried out and a kinetic study was conducted. A model is proposed for the ECs elimination, and the theoretically calculated concentrations with this model agreed well with the experimental results obtained, which confirmed that it constitutes an excellent tool to predict the elimination of these compounds in waters.

Photolysis of model emerging contaminants in ultra-pure water: kinetics, by-products formation and degradation pathways.

The photolysis of five frequent emerging contaminants (Benzotriazole, Chlorophene, N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide or DEET, Methylindole, and Nortriptyline HCl) was investigated in ultrapure water under monochromatic ultraviolet radiation at 254 nm and by a combination of UV and hydrogen peroxide. The results revealed that the photolysis rates followed first-order kinetics, with rate constant values depending on the nature of the specific compound, the pH, and the presence or absence of the scavenger tert-butanol. Quantum yields were also determined and values in the range of 53.8 × 10⁻³ - 9.4 × 10⁻³ mol E⁻¹ for Benzotriazole, 525 × 10⁻³ - 469 × 10⁻³ mol E⁻¹ for Chlorophene, 2.8 × 10⁻³ - 0.9 × 10⁻³ mol E⁻¹ for DEET, 108 × 10⁻³ - 165 × 10⁻³ mol E⁻¹ for Methylindole, and 13.8 × 10⁻³ - 15.0 × 10⁻³ mol E⁻¹ for Nortriptyline were obtained. The study also found that the UV/H2O2 process enhanced the oxidation rate in comparison to direct photolysis. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS) technique was applied to the concentrations evaluation and further identification of the parent compounds and their by-products, which allowed the proposal of the degradation pathways for each compound. Finally, in order to assess the aquatic toxicity in the photodegradation of these compounds, the Vibrio fischeri acute toxicity test was used, and the results indicated an initial increase of this parameter in all cases, followed by a decrease in the specific case of Benzotriazole, DEET, Methylindole, and Chlorophene.

Combined chemical oxidation and membrane filtration techniques applied to the removal of some selected pharmaceuticals from water systems.

The elimination of five selected pharmaceuticals (amoxicillin, hydrochlorothiazide, metoprolol, naproxen and phenacetin) dissolved in different water systems (two natural water matrices and a secondary effluent) was carried out by sequential processes constituted by membrane filtration and chemical oxidation stages. Different configurations of those two stages were applied. In a first group, a pretreatment consisting in a membrane filtration (ultrafiltration or nanofiltration) was conducted; and the permeate and retentate effluents produced were afterwards treated by chemical oxidation, using ozone or chlorine. In a second group, the pretreatment consisted in a chemical oxidation stage (by using ozone, chlorine, O(3)/H(2)O(2), UV or UV/H(2)O(2)) followed by a nanofiltration process. The main objective of this set of experiments was the comparison of the efficiencies reached by using different systems and configurations in order to optimize the elimination of those pollutants from the selected water matrices. Results of removals and rejection coefficients for the five pharmaceuticals showed that the combined treatments involving UV radiation (254 nm monochromatic radiation during 30 min) followed by nanofiltration were very effective, with global removals over 80 % in most of the experiments. Ozonation (initial dose of 2.25 mg L(-1)) followed by nanofiltration also showed high levels of efficiency, with removals over 70 % in the permeate stream generated in experiments carried out with natural waters. The opposite sequence, nanofiltration followed by ozonation, reached removals over 97 % in the natural waters by using an ozone dose of 2.25 mg L(-1); and over 90 % in the secondary effluent with an initial ozone dose of 3.75 mg L(-1).

Bromination of selected pharmaceuticals in water matrices.

The bromination of five selected pharmaceuticals (metoprolol, naproxen, amoxicillin, phenacetin, and hydrochlorothiazide) was studied with these compounds individually dissolved in ultra-pure water. The apparent rate constants for the bromination reaction were determined as a function of the pH, obtaining the sequence amoxicillin>naproxen>>hydrochlorothiazide≈phenacetin≈metoprolol. A kinetic mechanism specifying the dissociation reactions and the species formed for each compound according to its pK(a) value and the pH allowed the intrinsic rate constants to be determined for each elementary reaction. There was fairly good agreement between the experimental and calculated values of the apparent rate constants, confirming the goodness of the proposed reaction mechanism. In a second stage, the bromination of the selected pharmaceuticals simultaneously dissolved in three water matrices (a groundwater, a surface water from a public reservoir, and a secondary effluent from a WWTP) was investigated. The pharmaceutical elimination trend agreed with the previously determined rate constants. The influence of the main operating conditions (pH, initial bromine dose, and characteristics of the water matrix) on the degradation of the pharmaceuticals was established. An elimination concentration profile for each pharmaceutical in the water matrices was proposed based on the use of the previously evaluated apparent rate constants, and the theoretical results agreed satisfactorily with experiment. Finally, chlorination experiments performed in the presence of bromide showed that low bromide concentrations slightly accelerate the oxidation of the selected pharmaceuticals during chlorine disinfection.

Kinetics of aqueous chlorination of some pharmaceuticals and their elimination from water matrices.

Apparent rate constants for the reactions of four selected pharmaceutical compounds (metoprolol, naproxen, amoxicillin, and phenacetin) with chlorine in ultra-pure (UP) water were determined as a function of the pH. It was found that amoxicillin (in the whole pH range 3-12), and naproxen (in the low pH range 2-4) presented high reaction rates, while naproxen (in the pH range 5-9), and phenacetin and metoprolol (in the pH range 2.5-12 for phenacetin, and 3-10 for metoprolol) followed intermediate and slow reaction rates. A mechanism is proposed for the chlorination reaction, which allowed the evaluation of the intrinsic rate constants for the elementary reactions of the ionized and un-ionized species of each selected pharmaceutical with chlorine. An excellent agreement is obtained between experimental and calculated rate constants by this mechanism.The elimination of these substances in several waters (a groundwater, a surface water from a public reservoir, and two effluents from municipal wastewater treatment plants) was also investigated at neutral pH. The efficiency of the chlorination process with respect to the pharmaceuticals elimination and the formation THMs was also established. It is generally observed that the increasing presence of organic and inorganic matter in the water matrices demand more oxidant agent (chlorine), and therefore, less chlorine is available for the oxidation of these compounds. Finally, half-life times and oxidant exposures (CT) required for the removal of 99% of the four pharmaceuticals are also evaluated. These parameters are useful for the establishment of safety chlorine doses in oxidation or disinfection stages of pharmaceuticals in treatment plants.

Membrane filtration technologies applied to municipal secondary effluents for potential reuse.

Four UF membranes (denoted GH, GK, PT and PW with MWCO of 1000, 2000, 5000 and 20,000Da, respectively) and four NF membranes (denoted DL, CK, DK and HL, with an approximate MWCO of 150-300Da in all cases) were used for the filtration of an effluent generated in a municipal wastewater plant after a secondary treatment. The influence of the most important operating variables (nature and MWCO of the membranes, transmembrane pressure, tangential velocity, and temperature) on the permeate flux was widely discussed, and the resistances to the permeate flux were determined following the resistances in series model. Rejection coefficients for parameters that measure the global pollutant content of the effluent (chemical oxygen demand, total organic carbon, absorbance at 254nm, turbidity, total nitrogen and total phosphorus) were also evaluated, and the results revealed that both UF and NF are feasible options for the treatment of this effluent, yielding a permeate stream that can be reused in several applications. Finally, 28 pharmaceutical compounds were initially detected in this effluent, and their respective rejection coefficients were determined, with eliminations higher than 75% in the case of NF with the HL membrane. Therefore, it is concluded that NF is an excellent option for the removal of toxic pharmaceuticals in municipal wastewaters.

Ozonation of pharmaceutical compounds: Rate constants and elimination in various water matrices.

The ozonation of four pharmaceuticals (metoprolol, naproxen, amoxicillin, and phenacetin) in ultra-pure (UP) water was studied in the pH range between 2.5 and 9. The experiments allowed the determination of the apparent rate constants for the reactions between ozone and the selected compounds. The values obtained varied depending on the pH, and ranged between 239 and 1.27x10(4)M(-1) s(-1) for metoprolol; 2.62x10(4) and 2.97x10(5)M(-1)s(-1) for naproxen; 2.31x10(3) and 1.21x10(7)M(-1)s(-1) for amoxicillin; and 215 and 1.57x10(3)M(-1)s(-1) for phenacetin. Due to the acidic nature of these substances, the degree of dissociation of each pharmaceutical was determined at every pH of work, and the specific rate constants of the neutral and ionic species formed were evaluated. Additionally, the simultaneous ozonation of the pharmaceuticals in different water matrices was carried out by considering a groundwater, a surface water from a public reservoir, and three secondary effluents from municipal wastewater treatment plants. The influence of the operating conditions (initial ozone dose, nature of pharmaceuticals and type of water) on the pharmaceuticals elimination efficiency was established, and a kinetic model was proposed for the evaluation of the partial contribution to the global oxidation of both, the direct ozonation reaction and the radical pathway.

Removal of phenyl-urea herbicides in ultrapure water by ultrafiltration and nanofiltration processes.

Membrane filtration of four phenyl-urea herbicides (linuron, diuron, chlortoluron, and isoproturon) dissolved in ultrapure water was studied in a laboratory cross-flow device in batch concentration mode (with recycling of the retentate stream). Three UF (MWCO of 20 000, 5000 and 2000Da) and three NF (MWCO of 150-300Da) membranes were used. The influence of the main operating conditions (transmembrane pressure, tangential velocity, temperature, pH, and MWCO of the membranes) on the steady-state permeate fluxes and the retention factors of the phenyl-ureas was evaluated. The herbicide mass adsorbed onto the membranes was also determined, and the contribution of the fouling resistance to the total resistance to permeate flux was much lower than the inherent resistance of the clean membranes.

The use of ultrafiltration and nanofiltration membranes for the purification of cork processing wastewater.

Filtration experiments in batch concentration mode (with recycling of the retentate stream) of the cork processing wastewater were performed in laboratory filtration membrane equipment, by using four commercial membranes: two UF membranes with MWCO of 20,000 and 5000 Da, and two NF membranes with an approximate MWCO of 150-300 Da. The filtration experiments of the selected wastewater were performed by modifying the most important operating variables: transmembrane pressure, tangential velocity, temperature, and the nature and MWCO of the membranes. The evolution of the cumulative permeate volumes and permeate fluxes with processing time were analysed, and it was established that the steady-state permeate flux was reached for a volume retention factor of 2. The effect of the mentioned operating conditions on this steady-state permeate flux was discussed. The effectiveness of the filtration treatments was determined by the evaluation of the rejection coefficients for several parameters, which measure the global pollutant content of the effluent: COD, absorbance at 254 nm, tannic content, color, and ellagic acid. Finally, the resistances in series model was used for the evaluation of the resistances to the permeate flux, and it was concluded that the contribution to the total resistance of the fouling resistance (combined external plus internal) was higher than the inherent resistance of the clean membrane.

Nanofiltration processes applied to the removal of phenyl-ureas in natural waters.

Four phenyl-urea herbicides (linuron, diuron, chlortoluron and isoproturon) dissolved in a commercial mineral water and in reservoir water were subjected to nanofiltration (NF) processes in cross-flow laboratory equipment with recycling of the retentate stream. Three NF membranes of different nature, with molecual weigth cut-off (MWCO) in the range 150-300 Da, were used. The hydraulic permeabilities of the membranes were determined from filtration experiments of ultra-pure (UP) water. In the NF of the synthetic waters, the permeate fluxes were evaluated, the influence of the main operating conditions (transmembrane pressure, temperature, and MWCO of the membranes) on the steady-state permeate fluxes was established, and the different resistances found in the system, which are responsible of the flux declines, were deduced. The retention coefficients for each herbicide were also evaluated and discussed in view of the nature and characteristics of herbicides and membranes. Finally, the herbicides mass adsorbed on the membranes were also determined and the contribution of the adsorption mechanism to the global retention is pointed out.

Oxidation of chlorfenvinphos in ultrapure and natural waters by ozonation and photochemical processes.

The chemical oxidation of the organophosphorus insecticide chlorfenvinphos, a priority pollutant in aquatic environments, has been conducted in ultrapure water, by means of single degradation agents (ozone and UV radiation), and by the Advanced Oxidation Processes constituted by combinations of these oxidants (O(3)/H(2)O(2) and UV/H(2)O(2)). The influence of the operating variables was discussed, and the degradation rates were evaluated by determining the rate constants for the reactions with ozone (k(O)(3)=3.7+/-0.2 L mol(-1)s(-1)) and OH radicals (k(OH)=(3.2+/-0.2)x10(9) L mol(-1)s(-1)), as well as the quantum yield for the photodegradation (around 0.1 mol E(-1), depending on the pH). Additionally, the ozonation of chlorfenvinphos in a natural water system (a surface water from a reservoir) was studied. The influence of the operating conditions on the insecticide removal efficiency was established, and the R(ct) parameter was evaluated. A kinetic model was proposed for the prediction of the elimination rate of chlorfenvinphos in the ozonation process and the results obtained reveal a good agreement between experimental results and predicted values.

Oxidation of MC-LR and -RR with chlorine and potassium permanganate: toxicity of the reaction products.

Toxin-producing cyanobacteria are abundant in surface waters used as drinking water resources. Microcystins (MC) produced by certain cyanobacteria present acute and chronic toxicity, and their removal in drinking water treatment processes is of increasing concern. Previous studies have demonstrated that chlorine and potassium permanganate are feasible oxidants for the removal of MCs present in drinking water resources, although the oxidation might lead to toxic oxidation products. In this paper, the toxicity of the oxidation products of MC-LR and -RR has been studied using protein phosphatase 1 inhibition assay (PPIA). The HPLC and ELISA analyses correlated with the PPIA results for both toxins. The samples containing the oxidation products were fractionated by HPLC and the toxicity of the fractions was tested with PPIA. The results revealed that protein phosphatase 1 inhibition emerged only from intact MC, while the oxidation products were non-toxic. Similar results were obtained in experiments performed in natural waters: no reaction products or interactions exhibiting protein phosphatase 1 inhibition were detected.

Chlorination of organophosphorus pesticides in natural waters.

Unknown second-order rate constants for the reactions of three organophosphorus pesticides (chlorpyrifos, chlorfenvinfos and diazinon) with chlorine were determined in the present study, and the influence of pH and temperature was established. It was found that an increase in the pH provides a negative effect on the pesticides degradation rates. Apparent second-order rate constants at 20 degrees C and pH 7 were determined to be 110.9, 0.004 and 191.6 M(-1) s(-1) for chlorpyrifos, chlorfenvinfos and diazinon, respectively. A higher reactivity of chlorine with the phosphorothioate group (chlorpyrifos and diazinon) than with the phosphate moiety (chlorfenvinfos) could explain these results. Intrinsic rate constant for the elementary reactions of chlorine species with chlorpyrifos and diazinon were also calculated, leading to the conclusion that the reaction between hypochlorous acid and the pesticide is predominant at neutral pH. The elimination of these pesticides in surface waters was also investigated. A chlorine dose of 2.5 mg L(-1) was enough to oxidize chlorpyrifos and diazinon almost completely, with a formation of trihalomethanes below the EU standard for drinking water. However, the removal of chlorfenvinfos was not appreciable. Therefore, chlorination is a feasible option for the removal of organophosphorus pesticides with phosphorothioate group during oxidation and disinfection processes, but not for the elimination of pesticides with phosphate moiety.

Ozone and membrane filtration based strategies for the treatment of cork processing wastewaters.

The degradation of the pollutant organic matter present in the cork processing wastewater was studied by combining chemical treatments, which used ozone and some Advanced Oxidation Processes, and membrane filtration procedures. Two schemes were conducted: firstly, a single ozonation stage followed by an UF stage; and secondly, a membrane filtration stage, using different MF and UF membranes, followed by a chemical oxidation stage, where ozone, UV radiation, and the AOPs constituted by ozone plus UV radiation and ozone plus hydrogen peroxide, were used. The membrane filtration stages were carried out in tangential filtration laboratory equipment, and the membranes used were two MF membranes with pores sizes of 0.65 and 0.1microm, and three UF membranes with molecular weights cut-off of 300, 10, and 5kDa. The effectiveness of the different stages (conversions in the chemical procedures and rejection coefficients in the membrane processes) were evaluated in terms of several parameters which measure the global pollutant content of the wastewater: COD, absorbance at 254nm, tannins content, color, and ellagic acid. In the ozonation/UF combined process the following removals were achieved: 100% for ellagic acid and color, 90% for absorbance at 254nm, more than 80% for tannins, and 42-57% for COD reduction. In the filtration/chemical oxidation combined process, 100% elimination of ellagic acid, more than 90% elimination in color, absorbance at 254nm and tannins, and removal higher than 80% in COD were reached, which indicates a greater purification power of this combination.

Kinetics of the transformation of phenyl-urea herbicides during ozonation of natural waters: rate constants and model predictions.

Oxidation of four phenyl-urea herbicides (isoproturon, chlortoluron, diuron, and linuron) was studied by ozone at pH=2, and by a combination of O3/H2O2 at pH=9. These experiments allowed the determination of the rate constants for their reactions with ozone and OH radicals. For reactions with ozone, the following rate constants were obtained: 1.9 +/- 0.2, 16.5 +/- 0.6, 393.5 +/- 8.4, and 2191 +/- 259 M(-1) s(-1) for linuron, diuron, chlortoluron, and isoproturon, respectively. The rate constants for the reaction with OH radicals were (7.9 +/- 0.1) x 10(9) M(-1) s(-1) for isoproturon, (6.9 +/- 0.2) x 10(9) M(-1) s(-1) for chlortoluron, (6.6 +/- 0.1) x 10(5) M(-1) s(-1) for diuron, and (5.9 +/- 0.1) x 10(9) M(-1) s(-1) for linuron. Furthermore, the simultaneous ozonation of these selected herbicides in some natural water systems (a commercial mineral water, a groundwater, and surface water from a reservoir) was studied. The influence of operating conditions (initial ozone dose, nature of herbicides, and type of water systems) on herbicide removal efficiency was established, and the parameter Rct (proposed by Elovitz, M.S., von Gunten, U., 1999. Hydroxyl radical/ozone ratios during ozonation processes. I. The Rct concept. Ozone Sci. Eng. 21, 239-260) was evaluated from simultaneous measurement of ozone and OH radicals. A kinetic model was proposed for the prediction of the elimination rate of herbicides in these natural waters, and application of this model revealed that experimental results and predicted values agreed fairly well. Finally, the partial contributions of direct ozone and radical pathways were evaluated, and the results showed that reaction with OH radicals was the major pathway for the oxidative transformation of diuron and linuron, even when conventional ozonation was applied, while for chlortoluron and isoproturon, direct ozonation was the major pathway.

Oxidative elimination of cyanotoxins: comparison of ozone, chlorine, chlorine dioxide and permanganate.

As the World Health Organization (WHO) progresses with provisional Drinking Water Guidelines of 1 microg/L for microcystin-LR and a proposed Guideline of 1 microg/L for cylindrospermopsin, efficient treatment strategies are needed to prevent cyanotoxins such as these from reaching consumers. A kinetic database has been compiled for the oxidative treatment of three cyanotoxins: microcystin-LR (MC-LR), cylindrospermopsin (CYN), and anatoxin-a (ANTX) with ozone, chlorine, chlorine dioxide and permanganate. This kinetic database contains rate constants not previously reported and determined in the present work (e.g. for permanganate oxidation of ANTX and chlorine dioxide oxidation of CYN and ANTX), together with previously published rate constants for the remaining oxidation processes. Second-order rate constants measured in pure aqueous solutions of these toxins could be used in a kinetic model to predict the toxin oxidation efficiency of ozone, chlorine, chlorine dioxide and permanganate when applied to natural waters. Oxidants were applied to water from a eutrophic Swiss lake (Lake Greifensee) in static-dose testing and dynamic time-resolved experiments to confirm predictions from the kinetic database, and to investigate the effects of a natural matrix on toxin oxidation and by-product formation. Overall, permanganate can effectively oxidize ANTX and MC-LR, while chlorine will oxidize CYN and MC-LR and ozone is capable of oxidizing all three toxins with the highest rate. The formation of trihalomethanes (THMs) in the treated water may be a restriction to the application of sufficiently high-chlorine doses.